We take an applied linguistics look at the conceptual curiosity around English's global proliferation and the future scenarios for this language and its variants. As English continues to gain ground worldwide, this article makes an effort to speculate on the language's prognosis. The exceptional success of the English language is a linguistic phenomenon with far-reaching ramifications and effects in many areas of life. The evolution of the English language has not merely involved internal reforms but has been a catalyst for global linguistic change. As a result, English's rise has spawned a complex environment that mirrors debates about language policy, linguistic realities, sociolinguistic phenomena and teaching English as a second language. Cook [1], states that "there is an urgent need for documentation and analysis of the world's changing language landscape and for informed advice" among linguists.

Human languages have a history of development, shift and survival or extinction. Any natural language still in use today must undergo a process of change as part of its journey through linguistic evolution to be viable and develop over time. In addition, linguists claim that "It is a convenient figure of speech to speak of languages as living or dead" [2], because of the flexibility with which languages can adapt to new situations. Research in historical and comparative linguistics centers on the concept of "language change," which is defined as "change in a language that takes place over time" [3]. The focus is on what changes and when they occur in a language's linguistic system due to distinct causes ranging in type and nature. All living things are subject to the rule of change, including the ever-evolving language used by humans [4]. Since "one of the eternal truths about living languages is that they all change" [5], all living languages are in perpetual flux. To this end, "it is no secret that languages change over the years" [6]. Since "all parts of the grammar are subject to change over time--the phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic components may be affected" [7], linguists agree that all linguistic aspects of a language are open to change. Any language that continues to exist, develop and serve its speakers' needs must adapt to its environment like all other forms of life. For any growing natural language, survival and adaptation are like two sides of the same coin. When a language stops evolving, its speakers risk losing their unique culture and language. Therefore, the other price a language pays when it stops evolving and developing is its eventual demise. For instance, "Classical Latin is a dead language because it has not changed for nearly 2,000 years" [2], is a lesson from historical and comparative linguistics.

However, it is a very different situation for languages that can develop and adapt. While languages like Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish and Arabic may have hundreds of millions of speakers and be used in contexts beyond their native regions, "the majority of the world's languages are much smaller, some with only a few hundred speakers" [1]. Knowing that "most of the world's languages have never been written down anywhere or scientifically described" [8], compounds the dreadful nature of this truth. To add insult to injury, "smaller languages are confined to restricted areas and specific ethnic groups and are often vulnerable" [1], to extinction.

According to contemporary calculations, there are somewhere in the neighborhood of 6,000 distinct languages spoken across the globe, with "548 languages with fewer than 99 speakers" making up roughly one-tenth of the world's languages and all facing "almost certain disappearance", as stated by Harrison. Thus, language endangerment is another factor that adds to the already precarious balance of the world's linguistic landscape. According to linguists' predictions [1,8], half of the world's languages are in danger of dying out by the turn of the millennium. This forecast paints a bleak image of the global linguistic situation, tinged with uncertainty and it behooves us to take decisive action to avert the imminent threat to our most important inheritance. With the expansion of global English, there is an urgent ethical imperative to restore equilibrium to the world's language ecology. Cook [1], argues that we need to evaluate the rapid expansion of English because "we need to consider whether the current situation is unprecedented, whether it has produced a new set of language-related problems". We must look into its potential future outcomes to fully understand the repercussions of worldwide English's rise to dominance. The fact of the matter is that modern English is a highly complex language with a wide range of forms and functions that have evolved from a common linguistic ancestor. Any forecast for the future of the English language must account for the fact that it has spread over the world. Examining the global linguistic landscape in light of English's growing influence abroad may illuminate the future of languages everywhere. Specifically, this research aims to reflect an applied linguistic and conceptual interest by discussing the prospects of English and its variants.

In the fifth century B.C., when Germanic tribes settled in the British Isles, the English language was born [2,9]. This event had far-reaching consequences for the global linguistic landscape. Researchers and linguists interested in the evolution of the English language have been fascinated by its extraordinary historical linguistic profile ever since it was born. Millward [10], Algeo and Pyles [11], Baugh and Cable [2], Crystal [12,13] and Brutt-Griffler [14], among others, all took a historical linguistics perspective and produced large, influential bodies of work documenting the causes and effects of English's development and change. English was described using a diachronic and a synchronic approach, yielding a wealth of information about the evolution of English pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.

Historians of the English language have confidently segmented the language's development into three distinct but interconnected periods: Old English, Middle English and Modern English. "Because languages change continuously," Finegan [6], writes, "any division into historical stages or periods must be somewhat arbitrary". Example: "The periods of Old, Middle and Modern English are arbitrary divisions bounded by important political or cultural events" [5]. "Like all divisions in history, the periods of the English language are matters of convenience and the dividing lines between them purely arbitrary", as Baugh & Cable put it. These categories are arbitrary, although experts agree more than on other matters related to the language, such as its recent development or its relationships to languages worldwide. As a result, "a better way to look at the shifting varieties of English is to think of a continuum of overlapping varieties, all of which have been changing but to different degrees" [5], suggesting that the language is in a constant state of flux. Researchers have looked into the linguistic changes in English over three distinct periods and found that many different historical, technological, scientific, social and cultural events all impacted the language in different ways.

One of the most impressive aspects of the English language is its ability to develop and adapt over time, as seen by its rich history. The "English language has undergone such change over time that one cannot read Old English without special study" [2], since it was introduced to the British Isles in the fifth century. Due to its highly inflectional system, unusual characters and sophisticated spelling style, "Old English will inevitably seem to the modern reader as a crabbed and difficult language full of needless complexities" [11]. The vocabulary of Old English remains true to its Germanic origins despite being part of a synthetic language.

As Middle English entered an era of profound cultural and linguistic change, it shed its highly inflectional structure and exclusively Germanic lexicon. Middle English was a time of great upheaval and linguistic and societal uncertainty, according to Baugh and Cable [2]. "Momentous changes in the English language marked the Middle English period (1150-1500), changes more extensive and fundamental than those that have occurred at any time before or since," the experts wrote. Researchers were perplexed about "how the language managed to survive the French invasion" [12], throughout this turbulent period. "The development of the English language was strongly influenced by political changes following the Norman Conquest""--an event more far-reaching in its effects on English" [11], "than any other in the course of its history" [2], as noted by Chamonikolasová. Language interaction is an unavoidable linguistic fact; Crystal [12], notes that "the main influence on English was, of course, French--the language introduced to Britain by the Normans", focusing on the Middle English period and the consequences brought to English at that time.

Because of French's introduction and subsequent dominance, English's status and use swung wildly and erratically between the decline in English's use as a national language by all English people and its subsequent reestablishment and then total triumph and control at the end of the period [5]. During this period, English witnessed significant cultural and linguistic shifts, with most inflections becoming more uniform and a substantial shift occurring in the vocabulary's Germanic roots. To paraphrase Baugh and Cable [2]: "While the loss of inflections and the consequent simplification of English grammar were thus only indirectly due to the use of French in England, French influence is much more direct and observable upon vocabulary".

One of the most striking aspects of Middle English is the wide dialectal variety that emerged after the Norman Conquest [11]. Wide and varied regional varieties of English emerged as a direct result of Norman rule, creating an environment favorable to the development of Standard English. According to Baugh and Cable [2], "Out of this variety of local dialects, there emerged towards the end of the fourteenth century a written language that in the course of the fifteenth won general recognition and has since become the recognized standard in both speech and writing". One sign that English was heading in a new direction was the birth of contemporary standard English at the turn of the fourteenth century. London's economic, political and cultural significance increased due to the interaction among the dialects spoken around the city, ultimately leading to the current standard English variation we speak today. Compared to the Northern, West Midland and Southern varieties of English, "London speech--essentially East Midland" [11], is regarded as bland and adaptable by historians of the language. The dialect's favorable geographical position, enormous population and adaptable linguistic system paved the way for the development of standard English. English's exceptional adaptability is not a recent phenomenon; it has always been a hallmark of the language. The Middle English period provided a foundation for everyday modern English's adaptability; therefore, the language's current adaptability can be traced back to this period.

The English language continued to exhibit its extraordinary ability to benefit from all influences, internal and external and invest them in developing its inner and outer history throughout the Modern English Period, which Millward and Hayes [10], called a "highly eventful period". According to Davies [15], "Modern English is most simply defined as a third stage in the history of the language, beginning around 1450 (the first two being the Old English and Middle English stages)". Algeo and Pyles [11], write, "The Early Modern period was transformative for both England and the language", attributing this to a confluence of technological, cultural and scientific developments that had far-reaching effects on English at the time. Additionally, Davies [15], stated, "During the Early Modern English phase, several highly significant and liberating changes took place in English society that was to have a profound effect on the way the language was to be used and regarded".

The printing press, the industrial revolution, the Protestant movement, the Renaissance, the socioeconomic change caused by changes in the economic system and practices, rising nationalism, the geographical exploration movement, colonization and the American Revolution, which resulted in the establishment of an independent English-speaking state, were all cited by linguists as causes of the changes to the English language during this time. "However," Davies [15], argues, "if there was one event that was to have a more profound effect on English than any other, it was probably the establishment in London of William Caxton's printing press in 1476 and the subsequent publication of books and translations in English". Because of the widespread use of the printing press, English spelling was standardized [5] and authors could write in their native languages [2]. There will be more development and progress in the English language, but "the pace of the English language history quickens" [12].

Not only did the events of the Early Modern period profoundly affect the development of English in terms of structure, usage and prestige, but they also had an internal and external historical impact. At one point in its history, English expanded outside the borders of its homeland, which it had remained within until 1558 [2,10]. According to Algeo and Pyles [11], "the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries were a time of revolutionary development, opening the way for English to become a world language", which would go on to dominate and extend across numerous fields and spheres of activity. To quote Crystal [12]: "The most significant step in the progress of English towards its status as a world language took place in the last decades of the sixteenth century, with the arrival of the expeditions commissioned by Walter Raleigh to the 'New World'". This period in English history is pivotal because it marked a significant shift in the language's structure and position and influenced the state of languages worldwide today [16].

The scholars' attention has been drawn to and discussion has been stirred by, the recent rise of globalized English and its triumph and dominance worldwide. According to Baugh and Cable [17], "It was only in the mid-twentieth century that scholars of the language began constructing models to describe the place of English in the world". If the diasporic locations of the language are related to the colonial expansion of the British empire", as argued by Kachru [18], then the concept of "world Englishes" and the spread of English as a global language phenomenon can be better understood. As Kachru puts it, "the glorious period of the British Raj, that the sun never set on the Empire and now never sets on the English language", as the English "were to acquire such far-flung colonies as Bermuda, Jamaica, the Bahamas, British Honduras, the Leeward Islands, Barbados, the Mosquito Coast, Canada, the American colonies, India, St. Helena, the Gambia and the Gold Coast". As Kachru puts it, "these distinctly different contexts of linguistic ecology opened up challenging research areas in language contact and convergence and multilingual interactions, both theoretically and methodologically".

Colonization brought English into more significant contact with various local languages in these colonies, giving rise to the development of several variants of English beyond the two standard forms, British English and American English. In this article, we will discuss the idea that "As a remarkable development, the aftermath of colonization and internationalization of English is not realized in the only two national varieties of English: The British English and later, the American English" [16]. Further, Kachru describes the worldwide environment in which English is used by developing a conceptual framework for a concentric ring model to depict the many forms and circumstances in which English is used.

The core is made up of countries where English is the official language; the periphery consists of former colonies where English is the official language; and the enlarging, where English is neither an official nor a former colonial language but is nonetheless a part of many people's daily lives [1].

"The model presents a schema for historical, educational, political, social and literary contextualization of the English language concerning its gradual - and unprecedented - expansion with the ascendancy of the British Raj and later in the post-colonial period" [18]. Researchers are challenged by Kachru's concentric circles model for the global distribution of English to look at globalized English outside of the ESL/EFL contexts. Better knowledge of the present state of these developing variations and their potential future impact on global English is required. As shown in the following section, many significant reasons have contributed to the spread, success and widespread use of globalized English.

Many of the world's population use English for communication in the workplace, in school and online and it is taught as a primary foreign language in nearly every country [1]. This is in addition to the 400 million people who speak it as their first language and the more than a billion people who live in countries where it is an official language.

Linguists employed various names to characterize English's astonishing spread and dominance worldwide. Examples include "English as a world language" [2,19], "English as an international language" [15,20] and "English as a Lingua Franca" (ELF) [12]. English's current status as a global language explains why and how speakers of other languages have adopted it for various purposes. The phenomenon of English's use as a global lingua franca is gaining more and more attention from scholars. Persistent efforts have been made to investigate its many facets [20-25], including its language features, user profiles and role in international higher education.

Intriguing linguistic phenomena, English's meteoric climb to international prominence demonstrates the cumulative effects of political, economic, social, cultural, technological and scientific variables that encouraged English's globalization. The widespread adoption of English has elevated it to a significant language. As Baugh and Cable [2], put it, "In numbers of speakers as well as in its uses for international communication and in other less quantifiable measures, English is one of the most important languages of the world" (p. 4). In addition, researchers have paid much attention to the English language as it has grown in prominence. "Given the fact that hundreds if not thousands of languages around the world are barely documented or simply not researched at all," write Schreier et al. [26], "the massive body of research on English seems truly without parallel". The vast body of literature available today on English is the product of the many angles from which scholars have examined the language's origins, development and consequences of its global hegemony. Researchers have looked at English from several different angles in order to assess its current state, including historical and comparative linguistics, colonization and varieties of English, creolization and pidginization of English, English and imperialism, culture and literature and applied linguistics [27]. This research has yielded a wealth of information regarding the effects of the myriad elements that have had far-reaching effects on the English language and its supremacy in the global linguistic landscape. Furthermore, these works represent a growing academic trend concerned with the future of the English language.

Because of its unique history, the present is an excellent opportunity to assess the situation and make predictions about English and its variants. Therefore, it is reasonable to evaluate the current state of the English language and its variants by considering all possible effects and situations. Given that "the role of English has developed to such an extent, unprecedented in world history, that it is difficult to see how it can now be dislodged" [12], the matter is complicated and as controversial as its significance. Since "few people doubt that English, having come this far, will continue to be used as a global language" [15], English is expected to continue to dominate the international arena. Several crucial aspects should be considered in any attempt to foretell the future of any natural human language. According to Baugh and Cable [17], "The variables to be considered come from demographics, economics, second-language learning, language complexity and the histories of the languages concerned, including the developments of their writing systems". All languages have an uncertain future that depends on a combination of the causes mentioned above and other as-yet-unknown circumstances. These considerations are critical in the context of the present and future of the English language. Undoubtedly as crucial as defining the principles of English's linguistic history is speculating what may happen to the language in the future. Baugh and Cable [2,17], provided three difficulties they saw as parameters for predicting English's future usage. Here are the factors to consider:

• The actual number of native English speakers

• This is because "a repetition of the spread of a language by conquest is unlikely in the twenty-first century" [17]

• New lines of inquiry into the challenges of learning a second or even first language hold promise for facilitating the study of language

The future of English has been the subject of much speculation, as Winkler [5], points out: "Numerous predictions have been made about what could happen to English because of its status as a continually growing global language" (314). Along with Winkler, linguists like Davies [15] and Crystal [12], have envisioned futures for the English language. These forecasts for English's continued role as a global language are discussed in the following sections.

The Number of People Who Speak English Is Rising

Since "growth in a language is a matter of population" [2], the number of people using English is considered when projecting its future as an international language. Recent studies show that the number of people who speak English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) has surpassed the number of native English speakers (about 400 million). As a result, many endangered languages with smaller speaker populations fear that English's meteoric rise in population could convert it into a "monster" and cause their extinction.

Language and English Grammar

There is also the possibility that English will undergo a process of variety and change. In the future of English, more variations will emerge and become prone to change. This suggests that English, like Latin, may give rise to further dialects that diverge into entirely new writing systems.

Globalization

Additionally, the increasing numbers of individuals who use English peripherally and beyond suggest that English's dominance and reach will only increase. Localized English is widely used in such communities, although Davies [15], argues that this could be a barrier to the language's status as a global lingua franca. Research that deepens our familiarity with the linguistic characteristics of the variants and the attitudes towards them is crucial to studying English's spread as an international lingua franca and its future. Researchers also need to pay more attention to the less-studied variations of English.

According to Davies [15], who cited McKay [23], there are several potential obstacles to the spread of globalized English, such as shifting geopolitical realities and attitudes toward English in the periphery and beyond. If the spreading circles rethink their connection with the core and choose greater independence and less dependency on the core, the global spread of English could be threatened. Moreover, "predictions that the percentage of material stored on the Internet in English may fall from 80% to about 40% of the total information" [15], English as an international language is likely to be affected by rising demands for more recognition of minority groups in the educational systems of some nations. Since it is predicted that by 2020, only half of all Internet traffic will be in English, more web content will likely be available in more than one language. More languages, other than English, are expected to emerge due to this shift.

The facts regarding the prevalence of bilingualism and multilingualism worldwide, the intelligibility of English varieties and the smooth computer-mediated communication as a common phenomenon among speakers of Englishes honed by modern media challenge the predictions of English as an international language.

Two schools of thought have developed in response to the academic study of the development and dissemination of the English language. "Certainly the signs are that no other language will replace it in this role in the foreseeable future," writes Davis [15], p. 148, "though other languages may have increasing influence in trade and communications in particular regions of the world (for example, Spanish in the Americas)." Furthermore, Crystal [12], said, "At present, due primarily to the economic superiority of the United States, there is no competitor for English as a world language". However, many worry about the long-term effects of English globalization.

The variables contributing to the rise and success of English worldwide are in historic decline, suggesting that global English will continue to confront difficulties. Davies [15], claims that Kachru's concentric circle model shows how English has spread in three distinct contexts: 

• Through migration of English speakers

• Through colonization by English-speaking nations 

• Through foreign language teaching in the expanding circle

Factors like colonization and the movement of English speakers will not be around to keep the language alive and create new variants of English. The widespread use of English worldwide has resulted in a hitherto unheard-of confluence of political, economic, cultural, technological, scientific and social aspects. Many internal and foreign dangers to English could weaken its position as the world's dominant language.

Furthermore, given the significance of the language to the daily lives of millions of people worldwide and its involvement in activities and situations requiring decisions, applied linguistics is the best field to analyze the future of English and its varieties and offer valuable recommendations for improving the language. With the current understanding of applied linguistics as "the academic discipline concerned with the relation of knowledge about language to decision making in the real world", Cook [1], argues that the rise and rapid growth of English as a lingua franca and its future warrant immediate attention from the field. In this way, the perspective of applied linguistics pertains to evaluating how the worldwide spread of English has affected its users. Furthermore, applied linguistics may address the future of English and its variants regarding its users' experience. The changing tides of linguistic thought now favor an applied linguistics lens as the best way to investigate questions raised by the proliferation of English worldwide. According to Davies [15], "linguistics was to focus almost entirely on the forms or structures of language," whereas "today there is far more emphasis on how and why people use language in particular ways" and "on the dynamic interrelationship between language and communicative function".

The English language has shown extraordinary adaptability and considerable flexibility throughout its history, allowing it to flourish in various contexts. The principles and factors that led to the development of the English language have been beneficial. The success of English as a field of study is evidenced by the fact that it has become the de facto international working language. Because language constantly adapts to new circumstances, it is essential to include a range of theoretical approaches to study its development and future applications. This is important because the English language is evolving not for its own sake but rather to serve the needs of its global audience, be they students, professionals, or academics [22]. Even though historical linguistics has covered the history of English from its emergence in the British Isles to the present day, it has yet to try to analyze wholly and critically the implications of English's internationalization on people's lives.

Furthermore, it is acceptable to research and develop theoretical aspects about the evolution and future of English because applied linguistics is the science that investigates the development of English in the context of its users' experience. More study is needed to give new paradigms for investigating the interplay of English dialects worldwide, especially in the context of language acquisition. Especially in light of the request for rethinking the traditional definition of a native speaker of English, this is a tricky issue because we need to know first what traits English (es) speakers have. As a result of the changes brought about by the current state of English, new characteristics are needed to identify the language, its purpose, its form and its speakers. More study is required to determine whether the traditional classification of the world's significant languages has changed and if so, what effect it has on the future of English.

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