In modern political thought, Nietzsche and Rawls represent two influential perspectives on the nature of human beings and their role in society. Nietzsche's Last Man and Rawls' Democratic Man are two contrasting concepts that offer important insights into the human condition. Nietzsche's Last Man represents the end-point of civilization, where individuals have lost their desire for greatness and are content with mediocrity. Rawls' Democratic Man, on the other hand, embodies the principles of justice and equality, recognizing the importance of individual freedom and autonomy [1]. 

Throughout history, different cultures and religions have presented various concepts of the ideal human being, often based on specific moral, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs. In Sufi mysticism, the concept of Insan Kamil, or the perfect human being, is a central idea that represents the highest spiritual attainment possible for a human being.

Insan Kamil is not just a theoretical or abstract concept, but a model of behavior and character that every human being should strive for in their daily lives. According to Sufi teachings, an Insan Kamil is someone who has achieved a complete and perfect union with the divine, transcending the limitations of the physical world and attaining a higher level of consciousness and awareness [2].

The Insan Kamil is a being who embodies the qualities of wisdom, compassion, humility and selflessness and who is in perfect harmony with the universe and all living beings [2,3]. This ideal type of human being serves as an inspiration for those seeking to live a life of purpose, meaning and spiritual fulfillment.

The research questions that guide this study are: How do Nietzsche's Last Man, Rawls' Democratic Man and the Perfect Man in Sufism differ in their understanding of human nature and the role of individuals in society? What are the similarities and differences between these three different visions of the ideal human being? By addressing these questions, this research paper aims to explore the concept of Insan Kamil in Sufi mysticism and compare it to the last man and democratic man presented in Nietzsche and Rawls' political thought. By doing so, the researcher hopes to shed light on the similarities and differences between these three different visions of the ideal human being and their implications for individual and collective human flourishing.

Theoretical Framework

This study employs a theoretical framework that draws upon concepts from philosophy, political theory and religious studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of the Perfect Man in Sufi mysticism, the Last Man in Nietzsche's philosophy and the Democratic Man in Rawls' political theory.

The philosophical framework for this study includes theories of human nature and the role of the individual in society. Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia, or human flourishing, provides a foundation for understanding the importance of individual fulfillment and self-realization [4]. Kant's emphasis on individual autonomy and dignity informs the study's discussion of individual agency and the pursuit of the good life [5]. Foucault's concept of power and its effects on the individual informs the study's analysis of the social and political implications of these concepts [6].

The political theory framework for this study includes liberal, socialist and communitarian perspectives. Liberal theories of justice, particularly those of Rawls, inform the study's discussion of the Democratic Man and the importance of equal opportunities and the fair distribution of resources [1]. Socialism's emphasis on economic equality and community ownership of resources informs the study's discussion of the Last Man [7]. Communitarian theories of justice, such as those of Sandel, provide a critique of liberalism and offer an alternative perspective on the role of community and tradition in shaping individual identity [8].

Religious studies are also an important part of the theoretical framework for this study. Sufi mysticism, in particular, provides a rich source of ideas about the nature of the self and its relationship to the divine. The concept of the Perfect Man in Sufi mysticism, or Insan Kamil, represents the ideal human being who has achieved a state of spiritual perfection and unity with God [9,10]. The Perfect Man is characterized by qualities such as humility, compassion and selflessness, which are seen as essential for attaining spiritual enlightenment [3].

By comparing the similarities and contrasts between the Perfect Man, the Last Man and the Democratic Man across different religious and philosophical traditions, we can gain a better grasp of the fundamental concepts and their significance to modern social and political philosophy 

Finally, it is important to consider the historical and cultural context in which these concepts emerged. Sufi mysticism, for example, emerged in the Islamic world during the medieval period and its ideas were influenced by a range of cultural, religious and philosophical traditions [11]. Similarly, Nietzsche's philosophy and Rawls' political theory emerged in the context of modern Western thought and their ideas were shaped by the historical and cultural conditions of their time.

By bringing together these different theoretical perspectives, this study aims to provide a nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the Perfect Man, the Last Man and the Democratic Man and to explore their implications for contemporary social and political thought.

In order to examine the similarities and contrasts between the ideas of the Last Man, the democratic Man and Insan Kamil, this research paper uses a comparative analysis technique. The analysis is based on a thorough reading of Nietzsche's "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" and John Rawls' "A theory of justice" from 1971. Additionally, there are Sufi mystical works like "The Book of Certainty" by Martin Lings [12] and "The Mystical Dimensions of Islam" by Annemarie Schimmel [13], that are based on Sufi philosophy.

Literature Review

The Last Man by Nietzsche is a representation for the ultimate endpoint of civilization, when people have given up on excellence and are happy with mediocrity. According to Nietzsche, the Last Man is the result of a society that values comfort, security and conformity above all else [14]. The Last Man is characterized by his lack of passion, creativity and self-mastery. He lives a life of comfort and security, but lacks the drive and ambition to pursue greatness. In this sense, the Last Man represents the antithesis of the Übermensch, the ideal of human greatness that Nietzsche put forth in his earlier works. Kaufmann [15] notes, "the last man is the opposite of the Übermensch, or Superman, who is Nietzsche's ideal" (p. 345). The last man is someone who is content with a life of comfort, security and mediocrity and who has lost all sense of purpose and passion.

Rawls' Democratic Man, in contrast, embodies the principles of justice and equality. Rawls argues that individuals have a right to certain basic liberties, such as freedom of speech and association and that these liberties should be protected by a just society [1]. Rawls' Democratic Man recognizes the importance of individual freedom and autonomy, but also acknowledges the need for social cooperation and mutual respect. In this sense, Rawls' Democratic Man represents a vision of society that is based on principles of justice and equality.

The Insan Kamil on the other hand, represents an ideal of human nature that is spiritually-oriented and holistic and emphasizes the cultivation of inner qualities such as compassion, wisdom and selflessness [3]. In Sufi mysticism, the Insan Kamil is seen as the ideal human being who has achieved spiritual perfection through the purification of the soul and the attainment of a deep and direct knowledge of God [16].

In Islamic Sufi mysticism, for example, the perfect man or Insan Kamil embodies the qualities of wisdom, compassion and selflessness and has achieved a state of spiritual perfection through the cultivation of virtues such as love and humility [17]. Similarly, in Chinese philosophy, the concept of the perfect man is associated with the Taoist idea of the "sage", who embodies the highest level of wisdom, compassion and moral character [18].

To sum up the literature review section, it is important to state that, the concepts of the last man, democratic man and perfect man reflect different ideals of human existence and offer insights into the values and aspirations of different philosophical and spiritual traditions. While the last man represents a negative ideal of complacency and mediocrity, democratic man embodies the values of liberal democracy and social cooperation and the perfect man represents the highest level of spiritual and ethical attainment. By exploring these concepts in greater depth, we can gain a deeper appreciation of the diversity and complexity of human culture and experience.

A Comparative Analysis of the Last Man, Democratic Man and Perfect Man

While Nietzsche and Rawls have opposing views on human nature and the role of people in society, there are some parallels between the two ideas. Both Nietzsche's Last Man and Rawls' Democratic Man are criticisms of contemporary society that emphasize the value of human autonomy. However, the underlying assumptions and values of the two conceptions differ greatly.

One of the key differences between Nietzsche and Rawls is their understanding of human nature. Nietzsche views human beings as inherently driven by the will to power and sees the pursuit of greatness as a fundamental aspect of human existence [14]. The last man is content with the status quo and has no desire for greatness or self-transcendence. Rawls, on the other hand, sees individuals as possessing a set of basic liberties that should be protected by society. Democratic man believes that individuals are capable of contributing to society and working towards the greater good [1]. Rawls' view of human nature is more egalitarian than Nietzsche's, as it emphasizes the importance of equal protection under the law and equal opportunities for all individuals.

The perfect man has a positive view of human nature. The perfect man believes that every individual has the potential to achieve spiritual perfection and to embody divine qualities such as love, compassion and wisdom [17]. 

While the last man sees human nature as passive and apathetic, democratic man and perfect man have a more positive view of human nature, seeing individuals as capable of contributing to society and achieving spiritual perfection.

Another important difference between the three concepts is their view of society. The views of society among the last man, democratic man and perfect man are quite different. The last man is portrayed as someone who is apathetic and indifferent towards society. As Nietzsche [14], writes, "The last man lives longest" and "We have invented happiness" (p. 81). The last man is content with the status quo and has no desire to change or improve society.

In contrast, democratic man is committed to creating a just and inclusive society. Democratic man recognizes the importance of social cooperation and mutual respect and is committed to promoting the welfare of all members of society. As Rawls [1], writes, "Democratic society is a way of life founded upon the conviction that the forms of association proper to human beings are those which best advance human happiness" (p. 4). Democratic man values tolerance, compassion and respect for human dignity and works towards creating a society that reflects these values.

Similarly, the perfect man also recognizes the importance of society and the welfare of others. However, the perfect man's focus is on spiritual and ethical attainment rather than political or social change. The perfect man embodies the virtues of love, compassion and selflessness and works towards cultivating these qualities within themselves in order to achieve spiritual perfection. As Sells [17] notes, "The goal of the perfect man is not primarily to improve society but rather to improve the individual and to transform the world through this transformation of the self" (p. 153).

Put simply, the views of society among the last man, democratic man and perfect man reflect their different ideals and values. While the last man is indifferent towards society, democratic man is committed to creating a just and inclusive society and the perfect man focuses on spiritual and ethical attainment to transform the world through this transformation of the self

Furthermore, Nietzsche and Rawls also differ in their approach to morality. Nietzsche rejects traditional morality, which he sees as a tool of oppression used by those in power to keep the masses in check. Instead, he advocates for a new morality that is based on individual creativity and self-mastery [14]. Rawls, on the other hand, sees morality as an essential component of a just society. His theory of justice emphasizes the importance of fairness and he argues that individuals should be treated equally under the law [1]. Similarly, the perfect man also places great importance on morality. The perfect man strives to cultivate virtues such as moral uprightness, love, compassion, humility and selflessness and views these virtues as essential to achieving spiritual perfection [9,10,17].

Thus, the approach to morality among the last man, democratic man and perfect man reflects their different worldviews and ideals. While the last man has a nihilistic approach to morality, democratic man values moral virtues as essential to creating a just society and the perfect man views morality as essential to achieving spiritual perfection.

Both Nietzsche and Rawls offer important insights into the nature of human beings and their role in society. Nietzsche's critique of modern society and his emphasis on individual creativity and self-mastery have inspired many scholars to rethink the nature of human excellence and the role of society in facilitating it. Rawls' emphasis on justice and equality has been similarly influential, providing a framework for understanding the relationship between individual rights and social cooperation. Despite their differences, Nietzsche and Rawls share a concern for the fate of humanity in the modern world. Both philosophers recognize the potential dangers of a society that is driven by a desire for comfort and security and both emphasize the importance of individual autonomy and freedom. However, the two concepts differ significantly in their underlying assumptions and values. Nietzsche's Last Man represents a society that has lost its sense of purpose and direction, while Rawls' Democratic Man represents a society that is based on principles of justice and equality.

The Last Man and the Perfect Man (Insan Kamil) represent contrasting visions of human nature and the good life. While the Last Man is concerned with material comfort and lacks any higher sense of purpose or meaning in life, the Insan Kamil is committed to serving others and to the pursuit of a higher truth or purpose. The Last Man represents a soulless and unfulfilled individual who lacks a higher sense of purpose, while the Insan Kamil represents the ultimate goal of human existence and the spiritual path towards becoming an Insan Kamil is seen as a lifelong process of self-transformation, discipline and devotion to God.

Nietzsche's concept of the Last Man represents the ultimate consequence of the modern democratic age, where individualism, egalitarianism and the pursuit of pleasure have led to the creation of a society of comfortable, complacent and mediocre individuals who have lost all sense of vitality and creativity [14]. Rawls' critique of the democratic man represents the average citizen in a liberal democratic society who seeks a fair distribution of resources and opportunities, but lacks the capacity for self-transformation and the pursuit of excellence [1].

In contrast, the concept of Insan Kamil in Sufi mysticism represents a holistic and spiritually-oriented ideal of human nature that emphasizes the cultivation of inner qualities such as compassion, wisdom and selflessness [16]. The Insan Kamil is not only concerned with material well-being or individual success, but is also committed to serving others and to the pursuit of a higher truth or purpose [13]. Moreover, the attainment of Insan Kamil is seen as a lifelong process of spiritual transformation that involves the purification of the soul and the cultivation of a direct and intimate relationship with God [12].

In contemporary political and philosophical thought, the concepts of the last man, democratic man and perfect man represent three distinct ideals of human existence. As Nietzsche argues, the last man is a negative and despairing ideal that embodies the qualities of complacency, mediocrity and conformity [14]. Rawls' concept of democratic man, on the other hand, represents the values of liberal democracy, individual rights and fair opportunities [1]. In Sufi mysticism, the concept of perfect man or Insan Kamil represents the highest spiritual attainment possible for a human being, embodying the qualities of wisdom, compassion, humility and selflessness [9,10].

While these three concepts share some similarities, they differ significantly in their underlying values, characteristics and purposes. The last man is a negative ideal that reflects a critique of modernity and its impact on human spirit, whereas democratic man represents the values of liberal democracy and social cooperation. In contrast, perfect man reflects a spiritual and mystical conception of human nature and represents the highest spiritual attainment possible for a human being. The concept of Insan Kamil in Sufi mysticism offers a comprehensive and spiritually-oriented ideal of human nature that differs from the critiques of modern democracy presented in Nietzsche and Rawls' political thought.

While Nietzsche and Rawls' critiques focus on the shortcomings of modern democratic values, they do not provide a comprehensive vision of human nature or the good life. In contrast, the concept of Insan Kamil in Sufi philosophy presents a positive ideal of human nature that is holistic and emphasizes the pursuit of inner qualities and the cultivation of a higher purpose.

As we have seen in this comparative analysis, the concepts of the last man, democratic man and perfect man offer three different ideals of human existence. While the last man embodies negative qualities of complacency, mediocrity and conformity, democratic man represents the values of liberal democracy and social cooperation. The perfect man, on the other hand, represents the highest spiritual attainment possible for a human being and embodies the qualities of wisdom, compassion, humility and selflessness.

In light of this analysis, it can be argued that the perfect man is the best of the three ideals, as it represents the highest level of spiritual and ethical attainment. Unlike the last man, who is characterized by a lack of vitality, creativity and purpose and democratic man, who is primarily concerned with individual rights and social cooperation, the perfect man embodies a deeper understanding of the human condition and a profound connection with the divine.

Moreover, the concept of the perfect man offers a holistic vision of human existence that integrates spiritual, ethical and social dimensions, providing a framework for the development of a virtuous and compassionate society. By embodying the qualities of wisdom, compassion, humility and selflessness, the perfect man serves as a role model for human beings to cultivate these virtues and to work towards a more just and harmonious world.

While the concept of the perfect man may seem unattainable or even mystical to some, it offers a powerful vision of human potential and inspires us to strive for excellence in all aspects of our lives. By cultivating the virtues and qualities embodied by the perfect man, we can contribute to the betterment of ourselves, our communities and the world at large.

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