Education's a reflection of society, a seed and even the flower of socio-economic development. It'll change people from a state of ignorance to enlightenment, and society from social depravity to advancement. It transformed human beings from ignorance to enlightenment, from sad social depravity to bright social enhancement, and a nation from underdevelopment to speedier social and economic development. Education decides the direction and condition of the development of the nations. If the country’s population is literate, they support to always for development in various ways. The conference of UNESCO which was held in 1964 recognized that “illiteracy is a grave obstacle to social and economic development and hence the extension of literacy is a pre-requisite for the successful implementation of national plans for economic and social development” [1]. The first education minister of codependent India, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, said in the parliament in 1948, “I need hardly say that whatever be our program for industrial, scientific, agricultural, commercial, or material progress and development, none of them can be achieved without an improvement of the human material which is the basis of our national wealth. That human material is largely conditioned by the training and education that it receives. It seems to me that whatever we think of defense, food, industry, and commerce, we must take every step to see that education is given the first priority among our national requirement”. Amartya Sen also emphasized that the resolution to all types of problems, be they related to the economy, development, or population, lies in education.

India has the distinction of having one of the world's most extensive elementary education systems. Elementary education is expanding with more than 15 core enrolled children and more than 30 lakh teachers in the country on an important level. The literacy rate of India has increased from a meager 18.33 percent in 1951 to 65.38 percent in 2001 and 74.04 percent in 2011, in which 82.14 percent are male and 65.46 percent female. The 86^th Amendment of the Indian Constitution declared free and compulsory education for children between the ages of 6 and 14 years to be a fundamental right, reiterating the country's position in favor of elementary education being made available to all citizens. Among the characteristics of literacy in India are not simply illiteracy but also regional, social, gender, and caste-based disparities in literacy. Primary education in India has continued to be very concerned with excluding girls and other underprivileged groups in society. Way back, what an educational expert J. P. Naik said holds true even today. 

He said, 'the largest beneficiaries of our educational system are the boys, the people of urban areas and the middle and upper classes.’ The essence of all educational endeavors in India is inclusive education. Eliminating all forms of discrimination and promoting social harmony are the goals of inclusive education.

Objectives of the Study

The present study aims at analyzing the following objectives:

• To study the development initiatives introduced for the welfare of the Indian tribal communities

• To examine the current status of literacy in India and Madhya Pradesh

Data Base and Methodology

The present study is completed on secondary sources of data. The secondary data relating to different development programs aimed at education among the scheduled tribes have been collected from both published and unpublished sources. Some statistical methods have been used for tabulation and graphical purposes. 

Schemes and Programs for Education of Scheduled Tribes 

The Indian government has introduced several schemes and programs for the education of Scheduled Tribes in the country. These schemes aim to improve the quality of education and ensure that students from tribal communities receive equal opportunities and access to education. Illiteracy is the root cause of the backwardness of the STs in our country. The government has been seriously improving its educational standards through various programs and schemes. Multiple programs and schemes launched to promote education among this disadvantaged section of society are discussed in the sequel.

•    Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme: The Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme for tribal education is a vital initiative that helps to bridge the gap between the tribal community and mainstream education. It enables tribal students to access quality education and improve their economic and social status. This scheme mainly focused to provide financial assistance to Scheduled Tribe students who are studying at post-matriculation or post-secondary levels for completion of their education. This scheme has been implemented since 1944-45 and is open to all ST students whose parent’s annual income is below Rs 1.08 lakh or equal. This scholarship is awarded by the Government of the State/Union Territory where they have resided

•   Schemes for Construction of Hostels for ST Girls and Boys: The scheme is funded by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India. It provides financial assistance for the construction of hostels and the provision of amenities like food, clothing, and medical facilities. This scheme was started for constructing the hostels for tribal girls during the Third Five-Year Plan period, and also a separate scheme was launched in 1989-90 for the construction of ST boys. Both schemes were combined into one scheme during the 10^th Five-Year Plan. The objective of this scheme is to increase literacy among tribal students by providing hostel accommodation to such ST students who otherwise would have been unable to continue their education due to their poor economic condition and the remote location of their villages

•   Schemes for Establishment of Ashram Schools in Tribal Sub-Plan Areas: Ashram schools are residential schools that aim to provide education and accommodation to students from tribal communities in remote and underdeveloped areas. This scheme aims to enhance and extend the educational facilities for Scheduled Tribe students, including Primitive Tribal Groups. This scheme provides education with residential facilities in a learning-friendly environment. This scheme is Centrally Sponsored between the Centre and the States on a cost-sharing basis

•   Book Bank: A book bank for tribal education is a program that aims to provide books and reading materials to students in tribal areas. Tribal communities often have limited access to educational resources, including books, due to their remote location and socio-economic challenges. A book bank helps bridge this gap by providing a library of books for students to borrow, take home, and read. The program may also offer literacy and reading programs to improve students' reading skills. The main motive of this scheme is to decrease dropout rates of ST students from higher education/professional institutes /universities; funds are provided for purchasing books. This is a central-sponsored scheme and the financial assistance is shared on a 50:50 basis between the center and the states. However, in respect of UT administration, the ministry gives 100 percent contribution

• National Overseas Scholarship Scheme for Higher Studies Abroad: The National Overseas Scholarship Scheme for Higher Studies Abroad for Tribals provides exceptional opportunities for qualified tribal students to pursue higher education at prestigious foreign universities and become acquainted with other countries' academic and research environments. This scheme has been operating since 1954-55 and became a Plan Scheme from 2007-08. The ministry provides this scholarship directly through the Indian Mission to the chosen applicants on a 100% funding basis 

• Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship: This fellowship was launched in 2005–2006. This program aims to provide financial assistance to tribal students who want to pursue higher degrees like the M.Phil. and Ph.D. through scholarships. All those universities and institutions regulated by the UGC Act; section 2(f) is included in this program. The Junior Research Fellow (JRF) and Senior Research Fellow (SRF) fellowship rates are equal to the UGC Fellowship, as updated from time to time

• Scheme of Top-Class Education for ST Students: The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has launched a new scholarship program called Top-Class Education for ST students, starting in the academic year of 2007–2008. The program aims to encourage meritorious tribal students to continue a degree or post-degree level studies in chosen institutions where the scholarship program will be in effect. There are 125 institutions that have been authorized under the program in the public and private sectors, offering programs in management, medical, engineering, law, and commercial courses. A total of 625 scholarships can be awarded annually, with five awards granted to each institute

• Vocational Training Centers in Tribal Areas: This program was started in 1992–1993 and is still in existence. The major goal of this program is to empower tribal youngsters with the skills necessary for a variety of jobs and self-employment to increase their income and improve their socio-economic circumstances. The States, UTs, and other Organizations putting the plan into action receive grants in the amount of 100% under this scheme 

•   Coaching for Scheduled Tribes Students: The Ministry of Tribal Affairs financially assists this program for coaching underprivileged tribal students in top coaching institutions so they can successfully compete in examinations for jobs or admission to professional courses to promote ST students for a better chance to succeed in competitive examinations. The program supports providing free coaching to ST candidates for a variety of competitive examinations, including those for the Civil Services, State Civil Services, UGC-NET, CSIR-NET, and other exams administered by the UPSC, such as CDS and NDA, as well as for professional courses like medical, engineering, business administration, and banking, as well as those sponsored by the Staff Selection Commission, Railway Recruitment Boards, Insurance Companies, etc 

• Strengthening Education among Scheduled Tribe Girls in Low Literacy Districts: This scheme is based on the gender of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs that purposes to reduce the gap in literacy between tribal women and the general female population by facilitating tribal girls' total enrollment in the designated blocks or districts, especially in the Naxal-affected areas and the areas inhabited by the Primitive Tribal Groups, and by lowering elementary school dropout rates by establishing the necessary learning environment. Non-governmental organizations and independent societies within the State Government/Union Territory are responsible for carrying out the plan

• Tribal Research Institutes: The government has established fourteen Tribal Research Institutes in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur, and Tripura. These research institutes are involved in data collection, research, evaluation studies, customary law codification, training, seminars, and workshops and providing planning input to the state government 

• Mid-Day Meal Scheme: The Mid-Day Meal Scheme is a government-sponsored program in India that aims to provide free, nutritious mid-day meals to schoolchildren studying in government or government-aided schools. The scheme was first introduced in 1995 in Tamil Nadu and later expanded to other parts of the country. The scheme's primary objective is to improve children's nutritional status and increase school attendance and enrollment. The scheme also addresses malnutrition issues and improves children's health and well-being. The government launched the Mid-Day Meal Plan during 1995–1996 to support primary schools in 297 blocks in Madhya Pradesh

• Eklavya Model School: Eklavya Model School (EMS) is a government-run residential school in India. It was started in the year 1997 by the Government of India under the scheme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. The main aim of the Eklavya Model School is to provide quality education to children belonging to tribal and rural communities. These schools' instruction medium is either English or the state's local language. The schools are equipped with modern infrastructure, including well-equipped classrooms, libraries, laboratories, computer centers, sports facilities, and hostels. The curriculum of the Eklavya Model School is designed to provide a holistic education to the students. Along with academic subjects, the schools also provide vocational training to the students to help them acquire skills that will help them in their future careers. The schools encourage students to participate in extracurricular activities, including sports, music, and dance, to focus on the holistic personality development of the children

Literacy among Schedule Tribes in India

Education is an essential requirement for the sustained growth of a developing society. Table 1 illustrates the trends in literacy in general and amongst tribals. In 1961, the total literacy rate was 28.30%. The female literacy rate was 15.35% and the male literacy rate was 28.30%. Among tribals, literacy was only 8.53%, in which the male literacy rate was 13.83% and the female literacy rate was 3.16%. In 1971, the total literacy rate had increased to 34.45%, with male literacy at 45.96% and female literacy at 21.97%. Tribal also saw an improvement, with male literacy at 17.63% and female literacy at 4.85%, resulting in a total literacy rate of 11.30%. In 1981, the total literacy rate rose to 43.57%, with male literacy at 56.38% and female literacy at 29.76%. Among tribals, male literacy increased to 24.52% and female literacy to 8.04%, resulting in a total literacy rate of 16.35%. By 1991, the total literacy rate had increased to 52.21%, with male literacy at 64.13% and female literacy at 39.29%. Tribals 

Table 1: The Trends of Literacy in India 1961 to 2011

Source: National Commission for SCs & STs, Fifth Report & Census, 2011

Figure 2: Dropout in Schools among Tribal Population in Madhya Pradesh in 2009-10

saw a significant improvement, with male literacy at 40.65% and female literacy at 18.19%, resulting in a total literacy rate of 29.60%. In the 2001 census, the total literacy rate increased to 64.84%, with male literacy at 75.26% and female literacy at 53.67%. Among tribals, male literacy was 59.17% and female literacy was 34.76%, resulting in a total literacy rate of 47.10%. In recent data from 2011, the total literacy rate in India had increased to 74.09%, with male literacy at 82.10% and female literacy at 65.51%. Among tribals, male literacy had increased to 71.70% and female literacy to 54.4%, resulting in a total literacy rate of 63.1%.

Overall, it is clear from these data that literacy rates in India have increased steadily over time and that the gender gap in literacy has also decreased, with STs seeing a notable increase in literacy. However, there are still significant gaps between male and female literacy rates and disparities between STs and the general population. Yet, it is still far below the overall national literacy rate. Many Schedule Tribe communities live in remote and rural areas, where schools may be poorly equipped and teachers not adequately regular. Additionally, poverty often forces children to drop out of school and contribute to household income. Social discrimination and disgrace may also prevent children from attending school, particularly girls. The governments have implemented many educational initiatives to reduce dropout rates, including free book and stationery distribution, reimbursement of fees, free bus transportation, mid-day meal, scholarships, etc. These measures have had some success but failed miserably.

Table 2 shows the level-wise enrolment of Scheduled Tribes students in lakhs for the years 2005-06 to 2011-12. The levels are divided into primary (I-V), upper primary (VI-VIII), secondary (IX-X), senior secondary (XI-XII), and higher education. In 2005-06, there were 141 lakh Scheduled Tribes students enrolled in primary school, with 75 lakhs male students and 66 lakhs female students. Over the years, the total enrolment increased to 153 lahks in 2011-12, with 79 lakh male and 74 lakhs female students. Similarly, enrolment in upper primary, secondary, senior secondary, and higher education increased over the years. In 2005-06, there were 45 lakh Scheduled Tribes students enrolled in upper primary, which increased to 56 lahks in 2011-12. In the same period, the enrolment in secondary increased from 15 lahks to 26 lahks, senior secondary from 6 lahks to 13 lahks, and higher education from 6 lahks to 13 lahks.

Overall, data show a consistent increase in the enrolment of Scheduled Tribes students in all levels of education over the years. However, the enrolment of female students is comparatively lower than male students at all levels, indicating the need for more focused efforts to improve the education of Scheduled Tribes girls.

Table 2: Level-wise Enrolment of Scheduled Tribes Students (in Lakhs)

Source: National Commission for SCs & STs, Fifth Report & Census, 2011

Table 3: Levels of Education of major Scheduled Tribes in Madhya Pradesh in 2001 (in %)

Source: Elementary Education in India: Progress towards UEE Analytical Tables 2011-12 Statistics of School Education 2011-12, Government of India

A Case Study of Madhya Pradesh

The overall tribal literacy in India has increased from 18.4% in 1991 to 41.2 percent in 2001 to 59.6 percent in 2009–10. The literacy rate among the tribes of Madhya Pradesh is still lower than the national average for all tribals, notwithstanding this increase (47.1 percent). Compared to national standards of 59.2% and 34.8%, the literacy rates for men and women in the tribes are also lower (53.5% and 28.4%, respectively).

The overall literacy rate of tribals in India has increased from 18.4 to 41.2 percent in the period of 1991 to 2001 and 59.6 percent in 2009-10. In spite of this increase, the total literacy rate among the tribes of Madhya Pradesh is lower as compared with that of all tribals at the country level (47.1 percent). Male and female literacy rates among the tribes (53.5% & 28.4%) are also lower in comparison to those at the national level (59.2% & 34.8%). Only the Gonds have a better overall literacy rate and a higher female literacy rate among the national average of the major tribes. The data for Sahariya show the lowest levels of both female and overall literacy. 57.3 percent of tribal literates are either uneducated or have completed education only up to the primary level. The percentages of literate with education up to the elementary and middle levels are 24.8 and 9.7 percent, respectively. Only 6.6 percent of the population is literate up to matric/secondary/higher secondary. Graduates and above comprise 1.4 percent, while holders of non-technical and technical diplomas constitute a negligible percentage. Among tribal literates, 57.3 percent have no formal education or only have attained an elementary level of schooling. The percentage of literate people who have completed primary, middle, matric and higher education is 24.8 percent, 9.7 percent, 6.6 percent and 1.5 percent, respectively. Among the major tribes, Gonds account for more than 57.7% of all children in the comparable age group who attend school; these percentages are lower among Kol, Korku, and Baiga (less than 50%), and higher among Bhil and Sahariya (more than 40%).

The data on the educational levels attained by all tribals reveal that the dropout rate after the primary is high. Beginning at the middle level, it rapidly declines. Similar trends have been observed in attaining the major tribals' education. Only 16.1 lahks, or 46%, of the 35.1 lakh tribal children in the 5 to 14-year-old age range had been enrolled, and 18.9 lakh children of the equivalent age have not attended school. In Madhya Pradesh, education is still essentially a distant dream for many tribal students. The Baitul in Madhya Pradesh has one of the highest rates of tribal pupils dropping out of school, primarily because test locations are too far from the students' residences. In the Baitul district, 82% of tribal boys and 92% of tribal girls leave school before completing their 10^th standard. The leading cause of the high dropout rate is long-distance travel by students. The local bus service is erratic, and parents don't have the money to arrange private transport. As a result, the maximum number of students have dropout their exams in these areas. Despite being aware of this issue, the administration has taken many steps to resolve it, but little has been done to remedy it.

Problems Associated with Tribal Education 

Almost all tribes, whether they are food gatherers, hunters, fishermen, nomadic farmers, or sedentary agriculturalists, lack enough food to feed their families throughout the year. In this situation, they find it difficult to afford for their children to be sent to school; instead, they see children as an economic asset in the family and contribute to the family income by working with the parents and others [2]. Girls assist their mothers with housework, while boys work in the fields with their parents. The family deprives them of his limited income if he is taken away from his regular economic work to attend school. Subsequently, the family becomes economically poor because the parents must pay for the child's food from their own income. 

The lethargy of the Parents

A large portion of the tribal family does not send their children to school for the utilization of the free educational opportunities offered to them by the government. The tribal and non-tribal teachers find it difficult to convince the tribal to send their children to school to adopt new ideas as they are more concerned with the present than the future, and their concept of time is circular rather than longitudinal (Sujatha, 1994). In addition, many factors are responsible for parents' apathy toward education. 

• Social and psychological factors are mainly responsible for low education, e.g., the parents' illiteracy, disinterest in children's education, lack of community encouragement and uncertainty about the future of education

• The interaction between parents, students, and teachers is not proper   

• As a result of the widely scattered, low-density population and the distant locations of the schools, parents don't desire to send their children on a long walk to school

• Family’s indecision to send the girls to coeducational institutions [3]

Superstition and Prejudice

Superstitions, blind beliefs, and prejudices play a negative role in imparting education in tribal areas and tribal schools. There is a widespread feeling in the tribal community that education makes their children disobedient and insolent and alienates them from the rest of their society. Since some of their educated boys felt alienated and cut off their links with their families and villages after getting an education and employment, a large section of tribal groups opposed the spread of education [4]. Similarly, some beliefs and superstitions discourage parents from educating their children. Several tribal communities think sending their children to schools administered by "outsiders" will anger their God. Outsiders in this context include teachers from non-tribal groups and teachers from outside their locality for education.

The problem of Suitable Teacher

The competency and interest of the teachers are of prime importance in generating students' interest in education. For a non-tribal teacher, the cultural gap plays a vital role due to the long-hanging dominant ideology, and he treats tribal students differently. Even the tribal elite, often a proactive teacher, has a special power in the village setting for which tribals are afraid of him. The ego and selfish motives of such tribal teachers have discouraged the tribal from sending their children to educational institutions [4]. Effective functioning of tribal education depends on teachers, their willingness to teach, and their positive attitude toward living in tribal areas close to tribal schools. However, in practice, the teachers are reluctant to reside in such areas; instead, they stay in nearby towns. Teachers would only like to keep it if the area is inaccessible in those cases. In maximum cases, teachers in the tribal areas see the appointment as a ‘stop-gap’ arrangement. So, there comes the problem of insincerity and non-commitment to the interaction of the teachers with the guardians and discussions with them over their children's education [5].

Problem of Language

In the absence of knowledge of tribal dialect, both students and teachers face the problem of communication and teaching-learning. It is found that tribal students are often ridiculed, humiliated and reprimanded for speaking in their language and are punished for failing to talk in their standard language or continuously lapsing back into the mother tongue [6]. Tribes are felt minorities in their own country because of the variety of regional and national languages. Resultant of the large variety of spoken languages ​​and their basic forms involved, which have not yet evolved into a written document that can be used in school language, script, vocabulary, teaching and learning for tribal children creating the resources of India is a very challenging undertaking. The government and different commissions have recommended that teachers know tribal languages are to be posted in tribal areas. The data reveals that only 6 percent of the teachers who are in primary schools belong to tribal communities, and out of this, 50 percent of the teachers are untrained and are basically matriculates or below that [7]. 

Facilities in Educational Institutions

School buildings in the tribal areas are without basic infrastructural facilities. In addition to poor maintenance of the school and classrooms, inadequate teaching-learning materials such as blackboards and chalk cause problems for the teachers and students in teaching and understanding the content. There is the perception that opening a school in a tribal area is of appointing a teacher in that school. In reality, most of the primary schools in the tribal areas are single teacher-managed whose presence in the school is more of an exception than a rule [2].

Wastage and Stagnation

Wastage occurs when a student leaves or drops out of a course before the allotted time. It is regarded as an example of stagnation when a student takes more than a year to complete a course. As per the 11 Five Year Plan report, the dropout rate among STs at the Primary level in 2004-05 was 48.9 percent; at the Upper Primary level, it was 70.1 percent; stagnation at the Primary level and Upper Primary level was 67.3 percent and 49.3 percent respectively. Poor economic conditions, parental apathy towards education, and lack of opportunities are the major factors for waste and stagnation.

Education is the most effective way to ensure equality and opportunities for development, but tribal people are yet to be educated. Only implementing schemes and programs is not a panacea for eliminating illiteracy among tribal society, but the benefits of these attempts should reach those that have arrived scantily. Tribal education is hampered by the lack of understanding and awareness of the tribal community of various programs, the peculiar situation of their dwellings, and the administrative member's complacency in implementing education programs and plans into operation. Furthermore, there is an enormous difference in information and awareness that tribal parents and tribal children do not understand about the importance of education, government policies and the assistance that accrue from them. Therefore, it is incredibly essential to raise awareness about the importance of education in the tribal population and tribal areas, whether that be through non-governmental organizations, governmental institutions, or the general public, to bring children from home to school for study. Tribal education should be a process for creativity and occupation that is consistent with the demands of the tribal community and national necessities rather than merely a process for the literate. The study reveals that the central and state governments have implemented several development initiatives in the last five to six decades to enhance the socio-economic circumstances of the tribal people. However, the problems of tribal development are still alive, though. It is clearly evident that we have accomplished much insufficiently in this area. The initiatives aimed at bringing tribal people to a level with the mainstream of society need to be strengthened and consolidated.

1. Pattanaik, B.K. and Madan Mohan Singh. “Sarva Shikhya Abhiyan and inclusive education.” Kurukshetra, vol. 59, no. 7, May 2011.

2. Hasnain. Indian society and culture: Continuity and change. Jawahar Publishers & Distributors, 2004.

3. Mishra, B.C. Education of tribal children. Discovery Publishing House, 1996.

4. Panda, P. “Barriers to educational development in tribal areas.” Indian Journal of Adult Education, vol. 49, no. 3, 1988, pp. 79–83.

5. Sujatha, K. “Education among scheduled tribes.” India education report: A profile of basic education, edited by R. Govinda, Oxford University Press, 2002.

6. Nambissan. “Language and schooling of tribal children: Issues related to medium of instruction.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 29, no. 42, 1994, pp. 2747–2754.

7. National population education. NCERT, 1996.