UN ECOSOC (1997). Describes gender mainstreaming as “the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.” Gender is development term of combined male and female. The concept of Integrating women into development (WID) process was emerged early of 1970s.   As a critic to WID, Women and Development (WAD) approach to development emerged in the second half of the 1970s. Women and Development focused on the relationship between women and development processes rather than purely on stratigies for the integration of women into development process. WAD is also based on several assumptions. WID and WAD both tended to focus on the development of income Generating Activities, without taking much into account the time burden that such strategies place on women.The labour invested on family maintenace, including child bearing and rearing, care of the ill and elderly and the like has been considered to belong to the private domain and outside the purview of development projects aimed at enhancing income generating activities. As a result, as an alternative to the earlier approach Gender and Development (GAD) approach to development evolved in the 1980s. The term Gender was first coned by psychologists and used by feminists to get away from the biological inferences of the word sex. Gender is a shortthan term which encodes a very crucial point that our basic social indentities as men and women are socially constructed rather than based on fixed biological characteristics [1]. Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are created in our families, our societies and our cultures. The concept of gender also includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women and men (femininity and masculinity). Gender roles and expectations are learned. They can change over time and they vary within and between cultures. Systems of social differentiation such as political status, class, ethnicity, physical and mental disability, age and more, modify gender roles. The concept of gender is vital because, applied to social analysis; it reveals how women’s subordination (or men’s domination) is socially constructed. As such, the subordination can be changed or ended. It is not biologically predetermined nor is it fixed forever [2].

The political participation of women in the world seems relatively low and it is duly because of the existence of the patriarchal mindset even in the political parties in almost all countries in the world no matter how advanced and socially, economically, culturally and politically sound the countries are. The participation of women in parliament of Japan and USA is only 7.1 percent and 17 percent respectively. While in the countries like Rwanda it’s 49 percent and in Sweden it’s 46 percent. The status of women in the developed countries is also lower in all sectors. Leaving some exceptions of European, American and Asian countries, women in the world are socially, economically, culturally and politically dominated and they are excluded from the opportunities. Same way, Women in South Asian countries are witnessing changes through development initiatives.  Women are considered as poor people in developing countries, live under the same conditions as men, but suffer additional social and policy biases. Though this problem affects almost all sections of the people, women are recognized to be among the most disadvantaged groups.  Political participation of women in the state structure and mechanisms is still a far dream even in this advanced century. Though, constitutions of all the countries have ensured equal status of all citizens without discrimination based on gender in every layers of governance, political participation of women in South Asian countries is very low [3].

At the birth, there are natural physical and biological differences between males and females. However, social, cultural, economic and environmental factors define differences between gender statuses [4]. 

Almost all currently married men and more than two thirds of currently marred women were employed in the 12 months preceding the survey. About half of currently married women (52%) with cash earnings decide independently on how their earnings are used more men than women own a house or land. Cumulatively, 8 percent of women and 19 percent of men own a house, While 11 percent of women and 21 percent of men own land. More than half of currently married women participate, either by themselves or jointly with their husband. In decisions regarding their own health care, making major household purchases, and visit to their family or relatives, thirty eight percent participate in all three decisions, while 28 percent do not participate in any of the decisions [5].

Objectives

• To analyze the demographic and socio-economic status of gender. 

• To describe the changing status of gender in Nepal. 

This article is prepared with support of secondary information reviewing of different published and non-published, research report, policy papers, reference books, articles, reports and other whatever available related to the issues i.e. demographic, socio-economic, health and political participation of male and female. The article is not described other issues beside above mentioned. This article is mainly descriptive and analytical types of methods.

Trends of Demographic Status of Gender 1981 - 2011

The urban- rural sex shows that number of males per hundred females is higher in urban areas due to internal migration, rural to urban of males. While analyze the context of Nepal, the sex ratio is gradually decreasing in rural and urban residence as well as even in Nepal since 1981 due to increasing of the number of female populations. Sex ratio indicates that the declining trend in the numbers of male population is largely due to the absentee population. Sex ratio is only 94.16 percent of Nepal according to 201, census.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) indicates the average number of children born to a woman of reproductive period (15-49 years). TFR in Nepal is declining compared to previous censuses reports. Table 2 shows the trends of Age Specific and Total Fertility Rates of urban and rural areas. Age specific fertility rate and total fertility rate both are low in urban and high in rural residence in all census year since 1991 to 2011. But however, the fertility rate is rapidly decreasing. The fertility rate per women was 5.16 in 1991 census, 3.8 per women was in 2001 and 2.52 per women was in 2011. NDHS 2016, the total fertility rate is decreased and reached 1.8 per women.

In context of Nepal, 7 percent of the total population is old aged and majority of the older population are in their 60 years. The proportion of older persons among man is 6.8 percent while for females is 7.0 percent. This may be due to improved life expectancy for females because of changing nature of working pattern, health facilities, food habit, level of female education as well as the government has to consider the increasing trend of an older population when developing policies, as more priority and rights are their requires.

Marriage is almost universal for all men and women. The trend indicates that early marriage seems to be declining. The percentage of married girls in the early age (15-19) years age group has decreased considerably since 1981. However, there is steep increases in girls’ marriage after 20 years for all age censuses, almost three fourth got married by this age group, in total, about 69 percent of womena nd 59 percent male got marriage in 2011.

The percent of female headed households is gradually increasing in Nepal. The percent of female headed household was 13.6 percent in 1995/96, 19.6 percent in 2003/4 and 26.6 percent in 2010/11. The status of female headed household is almost doubled within around 15 year's period. It might be their husband migrated in foreign job, increased level of female education and awareness buildup in the societies.

Changed the Educational Status of Gender 1981 - 2011

Literacy rate of both male and female are gradually increasing, since 1981 to 2011, 40 years period of time the literacy rate is increased nearly 4^th times. Female literacy rate was only 12 percent in 1981 and it has increased 57.38 percent in 2011 and same way male literacy rate is also increased in same ratio 34 percent in was in 1981 and it has increased and reached 75.13 percent.

Changed Economical Status of Gender 1981- 2011

Socio Demographic sector, gender disparity can be observed in the economic sector as well. It has been proved that Nepalese women work more than men. Women’s participation is the formally defined labor force increased substantially betten 1981 and 2011. The proportion of women in all occupations has increased to some extent. A positive trend in the empowerment of women is relfelcted by the inccreasing proportion of females in professional and also in administration and management. The distribution of labour force by industry, and occupation, employment status, wages in agricultural and non – agriculture sector by gender, women’s property and work load and the drudgery of women are considering the economic activities rate.

The economic activity rate is declining for both male and female since 1981. This decline in economic activity rates may be due to increasing trends in attaining higher education and increasing international migration, in 2011, females have achieved higher level of education; the shrinking labor force is due to migration of the economically active male and female population. 

Nepal’s labour force is still concerntrated in agriculture. In 2001, slightly more than 60 percent of economically active men and nearly 73 percent of economically active women were working in agricultural. However, in 2011 this declined, about 55 percent of men and 77 percent women were categorised as economically active within the agriculture sector. This proportion was much lower in 2001 and 2011 than in 1991 for both men and women. 

Women, lower than 50 percent are a small propertion of the labour force in the administrative, technical and professiona, and clerical worker categories. In 2001, females constituted about 14 percent of administrative workers, i.e., among senior officers, legislators and managers, and 19 percent among professionals and technicians, which included teachers, trained nurses, doctors, engineers, professors etc. However, in 2011, there was in increase by 30 percent in the proportion of females in the administrative workers category, about a 30 percent increase in the technician’s category and about a 34 percent increase in the professional’s category. The four-percentage point increase in women’s proportion in this group indicates a positive trend in 2001 compared to 1991. The proportion of women in this group has futher increased by more than 10 percentage points in 2011 compared to 2001. However, in 1991, this trend was declining comparred to 1981. In the agriculture sector, the proportion of the female labour force has increased by about four percentage points in 2011, while trade and other sectors have declined (Table 9).

Life expectancy of both male and female is gradually increasing since 1952/54 -2011, 42.5 years male and 46 years female was life expectency in 1952/54 and it was increased 53.5 years male and 55 years female in 1991- and 69.6-years male and 67.3 years female in 2011. The maternal mortality rate is decreasing, 818 mother’s death was per 100000 birhs in 1952/54 and it was decreased and reached 281 in 2011. Almost three times decreased during the 60 years period, likewise, neonatal mortality rate, Post neonatal mortality rate, infant mortality rate child mortality rate and crude death rate in both male and female are also decrasing due to the availibility of health facilities, female education and other socio-economic changeged, Basically, infant mortality, child mortality and crude death rate are rappidly decreasing since 1952/54 (Table 10).

Changed the Political Status of Gender 1850 to 2074

For about a century of isolation, roughly between 1850- 1950, Nepal was ruled by a feudal family the Ranas, who called themselves, kings. The Ranas ruled in Nepal for 104 years, during which time the people were deprived of fundamental riths. In 1050, the autocratic rule of the Ranas was overthrouwn by a movement jointly involving the people of Nepal and the king. During this historical mass movement, the women of Nepal played significant roles. They not only participated in demostrations but also raised the awareness of the people through radio programmes and establishing women’s organization to motivate women. Many female leaders worked underground and some of them were arrested for distributing pamphlets, even at the time of autocratic rule female leaders worked hard establishing schools, demanding voting rights for women and mobilizing a lot of women through organizations with an objective of fighting against the Rana rule. After the political change of 1951 when democracy was established women’s organizations were influenced by party politics. Women were represented in the National Level election of 1958. One woemn was elected into parliament and several were nominated into the National Assembly, but in 1960 the parliamentary system of government was banned by his Majesty the king and the partyless autocratic Panchayat System was established. Women activists protested hard against this Royal proclamation which was undermocratic.  A few women activities were Jailet for a long time or more than two years due to their views and actions [6]. 

After the restoration of democracy in 1990, only 32 women elected as the Members of Parliaments (MPs). In general, election of 1999, which was the third election held after the restoration of democracy 1999, only 12 women out of 205 seats that is hardly six percent elected as Member of the House of Representatives. The newly reinstated parliament has declared 33 percent seats as the reservation for women. Nevertheless, there is no any action plan for its proper implementation for women who occupy more than half (50.1 %) of the total population of Nepal. Few women elected to executive positions in local election; only 289 seats of the 3993 wards returned women chairpersons in the last election for VDCs and municipalities. There was not any woman has so far been elected as mayor, deputy mayor or DDC chairperson. There was not any women representative in constitution making body in 1991 and very few in interim constitution draft committee in 2006 after the struggle of women rights activists. Women less represented in political parties as well. Not more than 3 to 5 members have been women so far in the central committees of the national parties and other political parties. There were only two women in the special class, which totalled 85 seats of Nepalese civil service some five years ago, occupied all the remaining seats by men. Even in the third-class posts, which totalled 7,418 seats, women occupied only eight percent. The participation of women in politics seems insufficient for decision making levels representation. The participation of women in the people’s movement (April movement of 2006) was very high and indeed encouraging. But the interim constitution ensured only 33 percent women participation in candidacy (process) and not in the result, though the spirit of proportional representation is expressed in the constitution.

In the first Parliamentary elections of 1959, the entire 6 women candidates lost the election. As a result of the compulsory provision of the 1990 Constitution that requires at least five percent women’s candidature in the election for House of Representative the numbers of women candidates in the last three parliamentary elections held in 1991, 1994 and 1999 were gardually increased. Out of the total 205 seats only 6 (2.9 %), 7 (3.4%) and 12 (5.8%) women were elected [7].

Nepali women’s representation in the legislative body (Legislature Parliament), however, was dramatically increased to 32.8 percent through the constituent Assembly (CA) held in 2008. In the election, 191 women leaders (33.2%) were elected out of 575 seats, and cabinet niminated 6 women out of 26 seats, resulting to 179 women members (32.85%) in the legislative parliament. As a result, Nepal stands on the 14^th position globally to send the women leaders in the legislature parliament. The reason behind the drastic change in the women’s represeentation is due to the reservation of seats provided through the interim Constitution of Nepal 2007 [8]. Among 1944 candidates of CA members only 7.51 was female which is 22.5 percent less than allocated by the Nepal Constitution 2072. The Nepal Constitution 2072 has clearly mentioned 33 percent female candidates should be allocated in any sectors including political activities. There seems to be women were ingnored to select the female candidates in the CA members. Another hand, among 162 elected CA members only 5.45 percent female was elected and it is 24.5 percent is less than as allocated by constitutions and the political parties’ commitment in their election menifest. The political parties also have mentioned in their election menifesto that atleast 33 percent candidate will be female for the CA members, and in other including local level election for local government. But they missed their commitments as they mentioned in their election manifesto. While analyzed of number of candidates and numbers of elected members for local government by province, total 148364 members were candidates for election in all 7 provinces but only 35041 (23.62%) members are elected. As gender, among 90519 male candidates 20689 (22.86 %) are elected. Someway, among 57843 female candidate 14352 (24.81%) are elected. 

Table 1: Sex ratio by residence areas 1981 – 2011

Source: CBS 2014: Population Monograph, vol. II, table 6.3: 227, 

Table 2: Fertility rate of women 1981-2011

Source: CBS 2014, Population Monograph, V.II

Table 3: Ageing population of Nepal 

Source: CBS 2014, Population monograph, V.II

Table 4: Ever married population in percent 1981 – 2011

Source: CBS 2014: Population Monograph, V.II, table 6.15, p240

Table 5: Headed Household Status 1995/96 – 2010/11

Source: CBS, 2010/11, Nepal Living Standard Survey, V.I, p22

Table 6: Literacy rate of 6 years and above by gender in Nepal (1981- 2011

Source: CBS, population Monographs 2014 v.II and 2003 v. I, p 239

Table 7: Economic activity rate by gender 1981 – 2011

Source: CBS 2014: Population monograph, V.II, table 6.27, p 251

Table 8: Male /Female propertion of workers, 2001- 2011

Source:  CBS 2014, Population Monograph, V.II, table 6.28, p253

Table 9: Female Propertion in labour Force by Occupation 1981 – 2011

Source: CBS 2014, Population monographs, v.II, table 6.33, p 261 Changed Health Status of Gender 1952/54 - 2011

Table 10: Life expectancy and mortality rate 1974/75, 1991 and 2011

Source: CBS, 2014: Population Monographs V. II, table 6.6, p 230

Table 11: Women representation in Parliament under the four parliamentary elections

Source: Nepal Election Commission, 2013.

Table 12: Total Number of Candidates and Elected CA Members by Gender in Election of 2017

Source: Election Commission of Nepal, 2017.

Table 13:  Total number of candidates and elected in local government in 2017 Local Election. 

Source: Election Commission of Nepal 2017

The Literacy rate of both male and famale are rappidly increased, 12 percent female 34 percent male were literate in 1981 but it has rappidly increased and resached 57 percent female and 75 percent male in 2011. Likewise, demographic status is also rappidly changed i.e life expectency, percent of female head of household. Involvment of female in economic activites is highly increased i.e. female participation in non agriculral occupation. However, health status is also changed because of maternal mortality rate, neonatal mortality rate, post neonatal mortality rate, child mortality rate and crude mortality rate is rappidly decreasing due to availability of health facilities, level of female education, and other socio cultural changed. The female participation in political activitis is highly increased. As national election 2017, more than 40 percent female are elected in local government which are more than allocated by the national constitutions 2072 and participation of female in upper house representative and lower house representative are also satisfactory. 

The socio-economic status of women in Nepal is very poor. The women are being discriminated in every aspect of the society.  These and so many other factors have contributed to turn Nepal a lower human development state.  Nepal is a country of great geographic, cultural, ethnic, religious diversity. Across the diversity, the majority of communities in Nepal are still patriarchal. A women’s life is strongly influenced by her father, husband and son.  But  in  recent  period, the  status   of women  is 
slightly changed in all sfares i.e. demographic, socio cultural, economic, and political. As a whole, gender status is positively changing in all spheres i.e. socio-demographic, education, economic, health and political activities during around 40 year's periods of time. 

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2. UNESCO. Baseline Definitions of Key Concepts and Terms of Gender Empowerment. UNESCO Head Office, Geneva, 2003.

3. Regmi, K. “Status of Women in Nepal.” Journal of Midwifery and Women's Health, 2013. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles.

4. Sakya, K. “Changing Gender Status: Achievements and Challenges.” Population Monograph, Vol. 2, CBS, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2014.

5. Government of Nepal. Nepal Demographic and Health Survey. Ministry of Health, New ERA, and ICF, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2016.

6. Ghimere, D. Women’s Political Participation and Challenges. Gender and Democracy in Nepal, Center Department of Home Science Women’s Studies Program, Tribhuvan University, 2001.

7. Government of Nepal. Province Council Member Election 2017: Election Result Book, First Inclusive Election System. Election Commission of Nepal, Kantipath, Kathmandu, 2017.

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