According to Steve Tillis, “given the nearly universal impulse toward drama, it might well be that folk drama can teach us something not only about particular cultures but about humanity at large” [1]. This remark of Tillis has caught the interest of scholars and researchers working in folkloristic to study the origin and development of folk drama in a systematic way that earlier was neglected as a kind of primitive form. Moreover, the multifaced nature of folk drama has opened up possibilities for the multidisciplinary approach to studying this genre. Accordingly, my primary objective of this study is to locate and explicate the dramatic conventions which are a part of the ritual of the Danda Jatra. Furthermore, to conduct this study, I have first surveyed literature related to the origin and development of folk drama in the West, India, and Odisha. Thereafter I have provided a detailed account of the festival of Danda Jatra as celebrated in the Kalahandi region and explicated all the dramatic conventions inbuilt in the rituals of Danda Jatra, and concluded with establishing Danda Jatra as a folk drama. 

Origin of folk Wrama in the West

Drama is a composite form that mixes song, dance, mime, poetry and narrative. It acquires life according to the nature and possibilities of its outreach to its audience, thus creating a special bond between the actor and audience. This, in turn, reflects the nature of the relationship between drama and society, the implicit role it plays in the community that nourishes it. ‘Folk drama,’ however, means different things to different people, discipline and culture, i.e., worship, sacred retellings, or visitation by a deity, musical dance, enactment, song etc., “as an etic term, it easily imposes frameworks of interpretations that are not necessarily grounded in local understandings” [2] 

According to scholars and folklorists like Sir James G. Frazer, Baskervilles, Abrahams, Green, folk drama, in the Western context, had its earlier beginnings in the community life and rituals of the village. The villagers had to do such agricultural work as ploughing, sowing, harvesting and clearing the wasteland. This work pattern and the community’s survival are determined by cycles of cultivation and change of season. Moreover, with time, these community activities became rituals and found their place in mythologies. These rituals were performed as types of worship to continue to maintain the cycle and recognise their significance. 

Though a number of English folk plays have been lost in time, some have been preserved in written form in the eighteenth and nineteenth century as the mummer’s plays. Mummer’s plays are kinds of dumb shows, lively actions and wild clowning that embodied the death and rebirth of the seasons. As community drama drawing resources from folk rituals, they were enacted by amateurs and itinerant performers like jugglers, acrobats, tumblers, rope-dancers and animal trainers, a precursor to the circus. Included amongst them were the sword and morris dancers, the clowns and the buffoons, the jesters and the fools, who added to the spirit of the carnival by their scurrilous antics. In addition, there were ballad singers, storytellers, and minstrels who added to the imaginative quality of the performances with their songs and tales. Thus the mumming troupe travelled extensively, creating an itinerant form of folk theatre that used simple ceremonial events, like weddings, funerals, festivities associated with local legends and customs as the basis of the performance.

Folk Drama of India

In India, the dramatic tradition started with establishing classical Sanskrit theatre as early as 500 B.C. Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra is one of the earliest treatises on Sanskrit drama and dramaturgy in India and probably globally. In this, Bharat Muni has explicated the rules and conventions of traditional Sanskrit drama and his famous theory of Rasa, an essential element for the drama’s success. Most of the earlier dramas in India are available in narrative form, like Akhyana and Upakhyana of the epics and Purana with recitation, singing and dancing as the indispensable elements. Moreover, therefore in India, drama is not just a particular genre but Natya, an amalgamation of literature, mime, music, dance, movement.

In India, folk drama is deeply embedded into the religiosocio-cultural life of the rural folk. Whether it is on festivals or ceremonial occasions, or other everyday events in the community’s life cycle, there emerges a theatrical performance integrating song, dance, myth and tale into one composite art. Whereas the performances of classical drama were restricted to be viewed only by the elite few like the royalty, nobility and sustained because of the culture of patronage by the court, folk drama grew out of the activities of the common folk who worked outside any formal tradition of theatre. Thus, folk drama is an alternative source of knowledge and entertainment for the common masses. Folk drama, which grew out of India’s community rituals, was based on oral tradition; the text was not needed to perform community rituals. Fluency and accuracy depended on the repetitive performances/enactment of those rituals wherein the ‘memory’ and ‘remembering’ rituals with a degree of religious honesty were crucial. In other words, these folk dramas that developed from folk rituals survived the test of time as mimetic acts. However, with time they were reinscribed into texts as a rationalisation for performances that may have taken place. 

The immediate historical factor responsible for the emergence of folk dramas in a different geographical location in India was the dismantling of classical Sanskrit and the prominence of the new vernacular during the Moghul period. “Historically speaking, during the 15th -16th century, folk theatre emerged forcefully in different regions. It used different languages, the languages of the regions in which it emerged” [3]. Indian folk dramas are either religious or secular, and the two forms thrived together, mutually influencing each other. 

Whereas folk dramas like Raslila, Nautanki, and Ramlila are popular all over India, Some of the aanchalik folk dramas are, Koodiyattam (Kerala), Yakshagana (Karnataka), Swang (Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh), Bhand Paather (Kashmir), Ankiya Naat Bhaona (Assam), Tamasha (Maharashtra), Jatra (Bihar and West Bengal), Bhavai (Gujrat), Dashavtaar (Goa), Karyala (Himachal Pradesh) and Ramman (Uttarakhand).

The ontological and epistemological enquiries into the origin and development of folk drama in Odisha have concluded that drama originated from poetry. Moreover, because of which researchers define ‘folk drama’ as poetic drama or Chhanda drama. Furthermore, drama is also called ‘visual poetry’ because of its original connection with poetry. Moreover, folk drama is a composite art form with the fusion of elements from folk songs and folk dance. In other words, it is in the folk drama, the beauty of the multifarious folk art is fully manifested and realised. Without the constituents of its two significant ingredients, like a folk song and folk dance, there may not be any folk drama [4]. So folk drama in Odisha is broadly divided into two categories:

• Non-dialogic song and dance play like Pala and Daaskaathiaa

• The fully dialectical play Leela, Jatra, Suaanga

Pala is mainly performed during Satyanarayan Puja and is very popular in the eastern part of Odisha. It is essential as a successful medium in bringing perfect blending in between the Oriya tradition and the tradition of incredible India. Pandit Nilakantha Das, in his book Gradual Progress of Oriya literature, has mentioned that Pala originated in Bengal during the reign of Hussein Shah. In Pala, the lead male singer is called Gayaka, and his choric followers are called Palias, a group of five male singers. The Gayaka starts his song with the accompaniment of ‘mridanga’ whereas the Palias play on the cymbals, dance and simplify the meaning to the audience. “The depth of knowledge, sharpness of intelligence, oratory and keen memory power are put to a severe test when two well-matched groups challenge each other in a Pala competition.” 

Dasakathia performances primarily focus on reciting the mythological stories related to Lord Shiva. However, one of the prominent aspects of this folk form is satire. The performers play the Kathia, a percussion instrument made up of a pair of wooden pieces, while singing and vocalising. 

Jatra, Leela and Suaanga are the three main types of folk drama that are popular in the western part of Odisha. 

Jatra primarily means the procession/journey of the deity from his abode/temple to the place of celebration on a religious festival and his journey back to their temple [5]. Even today, in the entire Western Odisha, including Kalahandi, Jatra mainly means a journey/procession of the deity during religious festivals. 

Leela means the process of the dramatic performance of the divine life of the great men of the Puranas. In the case of Leela, a dedicated singer usually sings the Leela to the accompaniment of musical instruments, and the actors and the actresses perform the story without using speech [4]. Ramleela, Krishnaleela, Gopaleela, Bharatleela, and Alekhaleela are notable examples of this Leela in Western Odisha. 

Similarly, the dramatic performance abundance in Hasyarasa and Rangarasa is known as Suaanga [5]. Suaanga is an aesthetically pleasing dramatic performance in which all kinds of dance, songs and acting are integrated [5]. About the origin of Suaanga, it is believed that it originated from the pictorial elements of poetry. Moreover, since the pictorial elements are recognised as the most attractive feature of poetry, they came to be known as Suaanga, originally from Shobhanga [6]. According to Dr Mayadhar Mansingh [7], Balarama Das’s Lakshmi Suaanga, written in 1600 A.D., is the oldest Suaanga of Odisha.

Folk drama of Kalahandi Suaanga and Naata

According to the researcher, Parshuram Mund [8], Suaanga is the oldest form of folk drama of Kalahandi (2). Kavi Haridasa Jyotisa’s Sulochana Harana Suaanga (The Abduction of Sulochana) and Chandravati Harana Suaanga (The Abduction of Chandrvati) are the earliest examples of folk drama in Kalahandi [9]. In these two Suaanga, the poet has used only the poetics of Chhanda Naatya and not the prosaic dialogues, thereby establishing a different tradition of verse drama in Kalahandi (Mishra, 1986, 353). From the last decade of the 19^th century till the first half of the 20^th century, Rasaleela of Sri Banamali Das and Dukhishyam Das have been performed extensively in this region. However, these Bengali Leela could not affect the popularity of the Suaanga, the original folk drama of this region. 

In Kalahandi, the folk drama is known as naat (a). According to researcher Dhiren Das, it is called Naata because, “Nata is the apabhramsa of the Sanskrit word Naty, The combination of dance, song and acting. In colloquial dialect, only Dance (Nrutya) is also called Naata. So Naataka and other forms of Natya are also known as Nata” [5]. 

Folk drama in Kalahandi originated and developed from the ritualistic culture of religious festivals like Danda Jatra, Chaitiparav Nrutya, Chandan Jatra etc. The folk rituals of these festivals are embedded with the elements of folk drama, i.e., setting, stage, music, song, dance, dialogue, characters and acting. Some of the distinguished characters of such dramas are Shiva, Parvati, Krishna Vasudeva, Radha, Chandra Sena, Thantel, etc. Furthermore, according to researchers, these rituals also eventually paved the way for establishing the Gananatya (Popular theatre) theatrical tradition in Kalahandi.

Although these dramas are primarily religious in nature, the use of ‘local(e),’ i.e., the gods and goddess are not the Sanskritized classical type; instead, they are the localised gods and goddess, who speak and quarrel like ordinary village folk; their occupation, their daily rituals, their language, all have the distinctive local flavours which appeal to even the illiterate local audience. Moreover, the use of locally available musical instruments like Dhol, Nisan, and folk songs captivate the aesthetic sensibility of the heterogeneous crowd.

Danda Jatra: An Overview 

Danda Jatra is celebrated before the twenty-first day of the Mesha Sankranti, as per the beliefs of Shaivism. In Kalahandi, it is celebrated for thirteen days in March-April. In the 9^th and the 10^th century, the kings of the Koshala kingdom rejected Buddhism and, for the propagation of Shaivism, started this Danda Jatra [10] Danda is a combination of two root words, “Da” and “Nda.” Etymologically, “Da” means “Prakriti,” and “Nda” means “Purush.” As such, it is believed that the universe was created with the union of Prakriti and Purush.

It is mention in the Danda Janma Pandu Lipi,

Da akshara Stree Nda Purusha: Shastramatre hoichhi bikhyata

Mata Aparna, Pita Nirakara: Shiva panchakshyara kare ahara

Hara nohile prashnna je

Je Danda Kariba biphala, hoiba tara kriya karma mana Je||

 (Bhikari Das Danda Janma Pandulipi)

English translation

‘Da’ means woman, and ‘Nda’means Man: It is written in the Shastras

 Mother is Aparna; Father is Nirakar: It is the name of Shiva with five letters

If someone tries to disturb the Danda

He will face the wrath of an angry God. (By me)

‘Danda’ is the symbol of Lord Shiva. Therefore, to preach the greatness of Lord Shiva with all sincerity and maintain the sanctity of this august festival, the devotees dance, sing, and enact the role of Shiva, Parvati, Brushava, Kalika, Veenakar, Yogi and Yogini. In other words, the Danda Jatra ritual has all the elements of folk drama.

Caste is not a barrier to participate and celebrate Danda Jatra. The Thirteen bhagata partaking in the ritual of the Danda Jatra can be of any community; they have discarded the caste system for a long as mentioned in the Abhinaya Chandrika

Mesh chadaka Samkrantyam chatakapat badayaha

Vividha roopa yuktena kustritam roopa dharanam

Punah gramantare kurta ba udra jakadibah

Acharet bibidhanrityam saramyabhalla naribat [9].

Thus, people across castes celebrate this Danda Jatra for thirteen days in thirteen different places to propagate Shaivism. For thirteen days, these men/bhagata performing in the Danda Jatra take only satwik food once a day and are forbidden to contact any female; they have to live like brahmachari. While onboard, these bhagata do not cut their nails or shave their moustache; neither do they cut their hair. They address each other as Rishiputra (son of Rishi). The wives of these devotees also maintain the same austerity in their day to day lives. For example, they must fetch water in the earthen pot without using bahen (supporting cloth). They cannot use hair oil or comb their hair; they eat only satwik food once a day; If the hair remains untied, they have to tie it in using only one hand. After taking a bath, they have to offer prayer to Lord Shiva and goddess Kalika carrying water in their palm [9].

When the group that carries the Danda chhatra and accompanying musical instruments for the Danda Jatra passes through to the village, the devotees of Shiva welcome them by sprinkling water on their path, and then they worship the Danda chhatra by lighting deepa and offering dhoopa. However, the ritual of worshipping the Danda chhatra is different. The devotees have had to create a small stage in advance for the Danda chhatra to be placed and worshipped, i.e., a small area is washed with cow dung, and three wooden sticks are placed there. It is usually done under the neem tree. After that, the devotee has to do the ritual after taking a bath and in wait cloth only. As per conventions, this Danda chhatra is offered Bel leaves, hibiscus, and milk. That is why it is said,

“Bhabina Madhu Kahai

Bhalapani thiba, thiba gachha chhai

Se sthana deba dekhai” [9]

You must show us the place,

Under the shade of neem,

And where the water is clean (Translated by me)

Offering all the necessary puja items to god, the main priest says, “Kalika Mahamayi ki dhoop Samarpa yamih.” And after that, they pray to Mahadev and all other gods and goddesses of the village and say in chorus,

Danda Jagaile

Danda Jagaile

Tera bhugutae Mani Dakadele 

They kept the Danda; they worshipped the Danda

The thirteen devotees now pray to the Lord (Translated by me)

Mani here means Akhandal Mani or the Shiva [11].

Once the Dandabhanga is over, these bhagata deliver their dramatic performance by playing Shiva and Parvati’s role at the very place where Danda is placed. In Kalahandi, however, we see a deviation from this trend. Here the performance starts with the Veenakar’s song. He sings the ‘Baidhana/Bhaidhana’ song and narrates the mythological stories of the Puranas to the audience. He sings,

Karuachhun nibedana ahe Sadhujana,

Kuru sabha pari aagyan basichha apana

Samudra baliku kehu kare ki ganana,

Swarga ku jae kehu nishuni lagaina

Suna ahe sadhujana

Aagyan kahibi haribansharu baidhana to

Baidhana gale Vrindabana [9].

O you learned men full of wisdom,

 I thank you for your participation

Can the sand of the sea ever be counted

Can heaven be ever ascended

Listen to me, oh you gentlemen

I will start with Harvamasa, oh’ dear man

The dearest of whom went to Vrindavan (Translated by me)

The Main Danda Naata

After having their last meal before sunset, these Danda Jatra troupes prepare for their performances at night. The stage is always set in an open field, like the open-air theatre. On one side of the stage, on a raised platform, the Danda chhatra is placed. This chhatra(umbrella) is covered with layers of black coloured thread; it symbolises Lord Shiva. Thirteen numbers of ‘ghungroo’ are attached to this chhatra, this is called Danda Beta, and similarly, seven gungroos are attached to the ‘Gauribeta.’ Here, the Danda Beta is worshipped. The leading pujari light the ‘Akhanda Deepa’ and invokes the lord. The musicians and drummers sit behind Rudra Danda and play the music [9]

Prabha Nrutya

After the primary puja of the god and the goddess, the main drummer stands on one side of the stage and beat it for the goddess ‘Kalika’ to come out. This is called the Parabha dance. About the origin of this Prabha, it is mentioned in the Shiva Chandrika,

Asura jhun Prabal hoile, Durganka age Brahma janaile

Durga teja ‘prbha’dei satwara, pathai dele asuranku maara

Kalika tahin basai

Adishakti mantre pujanti Jagate satata akshyara sehi [9]

As the number of demons started increasing

Brahma went to Durga, pleading

Durga immediately summoned her light-divine

And send Kalika to punish the demon

The world worships her as the Adishakti

She is the saviour of the world with her divine light (Translated by me)

One of these actors comes out as goddess Kalika. On the back of this Kalika is attached a rounded bamboo frame covered with dazzling golden fabric. It is believed that the Asuras were killed with this Prabha or Jyoti (divine light) of goddess Kalika. This actor playing Kalika drapes a black coloured ‘Ghagra’ (skirt), uttariya on his body, and ghungroos on his ankle. Another long uttariya is tied at the back. Kalika holds this uttariya in her two hands and dances her famous ‘udanda’ dance. This udanda dance is similar to Shiva’s ‘tandava’ dance. Only a male actor performs this dance as Kalika in sixteen almakara and along the sixteen taal of the musical instrument dhol. Some believe that the ‘U’ of the ‘Udanda’ over time is omitted, and the dance form is known as ‘Danda’ dance [12]. It is mentioned in the Abhinaya Chandrika that the Danda dance of the Odradesha is part of the Tandava dance itself:

“Danda nrutya tatha pung sah dandakara bichakshyana [9]

The speciality of this dance is its sixteen number of 

enactment. Since the Danda Naata consists of 

sixteen specialised actors, it is also called Suaanga.

Veenakara Nrutya

Carrying the ‘Gauri beta’ and wearing a beautiful dress, an actor, who looks like the Narada, appears on the stage. Gauri beta is decorated with seven bells. This Veenakar is known as Kandarpa. He was born from lord Shiva’s body part. It is mentioned in the Danda Janma,

Kashipure gopya Kandarpa thila,

Puni Ishwaranka angu janmila

Veenakara nama karidharana

Dandajatra re milila bahana

Rati hela karuani

Satya raja jogun, dhanu janmi thila

Sapta ghanti baje kini [9]

He was the Kandarpa of Kashipura

Again he was born from the body of the Ishwara

He came to be known as Veenakara

And met Rati in the Danda Jatara

Dhanu was born because of Satya Raja

Seven bells now tinkle from the Gauri dhwaja. (Translated by me).

Vrushabha-Shiva-Parvati Episode

This Veenakar Kandarpa sings the ‘Hara-Parvati’ Mahima with his partner, Rati, and dance along with her. They exit the stage with their choric ‘haribola’ and ululation. After them enters Vrushabha, and he sings,

Jayajaya Mahadeva Hara

Manabanchha purna kara

Dibi dibi je baje dambaru

Kailasa kanda ru

Chadhi Vrushaba, bahane

Kale bhramana, he

Jaya Jaya Mahadeva. [9]

Hail to you, lord Mahadeva, Hara

Bless us, and accept our prayer

Your Dambaru sounds melodious

From deep inside the mountain, Kailas

Riding on the back of his dearest Vrushabha

He is moving around the Univers

Hail O’ lord Mahadeva. (Translated by me)

Looking at the Jamhu Jatra festival celebrated by the mortals, lord Shiva reaches the earth from heaven; however, no one recognises him. Without Shakti, Shiva’s existence is meaningless. So he calls Parvati,

Bege asa tu jhatai go Haimabati

Kariba Jhamu Jatra riti

Kariba ethare jhamu jatara

Tenukari Parvati go karuchhi nura [9]

Come soon, dear Hemabati

We will do the Jhamu Jatra riti

Since I want to celebrate the Jhamu Jatra here

That is why I am looking for you, Parvati. (Translated by me)

This is how Shiva pleads to Parvati to join him. Paravati, on the other hand, complains about not having anything in the house to eat. Shiva then get opium, and Parvati scolds him,

Gunjumuhan tume khaucha ganjei dhuan

“You weird face, You ganja smoker.”

Shiva then gets angry and speaks like a farmer,

Gharakara riti na janu asati, to paragharani nahi darkar

Na rakhibi aja tote chhadidebi 

Na rahibi ghare jibi aranyare, brahmajnana japuthibi [9]

You don’t know how to manage the household chore

I don’t want a wife like you anymore

I will not keep you with me and leave you alone

Leave this house and in the forest do the meditation. (Translated by me)

After being coaxed severely by Parvati to bring some food for their sons Kartikeya and Ganesha, Shiva, acting like an Odia village farmer go out to the field; he carries his Trishul, Naga, Brushava along and trill the field and produces food. It is to be noted here that since 1500 A.D. in the epics of the eastern of India like the Sarala Mahabharata of Odisha and Rameswara’s Shivayana of Bengal, Lord Shiva and goddess Parvati have been depicted as the poor village farmer and his wife respectively [13]. In this dramatic enactment of farm and farmer, there lies the origin of nature and species. And after this, Shiva, Parvati, and Ganesha, all exit from the stage.

Gopaleela

The last part of the Danda naata is Gopaleela. It is called Vanibotala [9]. Whereas the central philosophy of Dandanrutya is self-control and self-discipline, austerity, that of Gopalila is romance and love, merry-making, that pleases the aesthetic sensibility of all kinds of audience. First, the sister of Thentel or Chandra Sena, Baeri (Mad Woman), comes to the stage, and while dancing to the tune of dhol, she narrates contemporary life in the local dialect. Gopaleela is sung in “Rasakulya” Raaga. The song of Thentel is viral in this area,

Mora na Sukumara bohu- mora na Sukumara

Bela budigale bhuinti suisin khatke lagsi dara [9]

My name is Sukumar, O dear Sister-in-law, my name is Sukumar

At night, I get scared of the bed and sleep on the floor (Translated by me)

And then Radha calls Thentel to give her company to go outside,

Asa asa nananda re kaen deuchha pahara

Nananda bhauja bulijimu epara, separa [9]

Come you, dear sister-in-law, don’t be my bodyguard

Once it is dark, we will sneak out and explore the world (Translated by me).

Similarly, on the other side, Srikrishna sends the Dutika to Radha with his secretive love for her.

Shrikrishna boile solahajara

Madhyare Radhika badsundara

Bishesha atanti Rajaduhita

Ta pasa ku tuhi chala turita je

Mu ate Nanda Tanuja

Eteboli Hari Dutikara Dhari

Bolanti Tejina Laja. Duti go [9]

Shrikrishna said to the handmaid (female messanger)

Among the thousands of women,

Radha is the most beautiful one

Special is this princess for me,

You take me to her immediately

I am also prince Mandala

pleaded this Hari,

To the Duti,

Leaving aside all his shame. (Translated by me).

Thus, the Danda Naata ends with the Gopaleela.

Explication of the Dramatic Conventions of the Danda Naata

• Mimetic Action: Danda Naata has a dominant ritualistic character. These rituals and ceremonies that form the dramatic action are placed within the broad literary framework, which is prepared from multiple sources, both ancient and modern and oral and written. Different scenes and episodes, i.e., the Prabha Nrutya, the Veenakara Song, the Dhuli Danda, Jhamujatra episode, Vanibotala, and the Gopaleela of Danda Jatra, are performed on the very spot in which the Danda chhatra is placed and worshipped. Thus it can be safely concluded that the ceremonies and rituals and the improvisation and imitation of action fused into one to build the dramatic whole. Both the mimetic action of these ceremonies and the deliveries of the versified verbal material of this Danda naata follow a pattern with which the audience is thoroughly familiar. Furthermore, the action is portrayed by stylised pantomimic gesticulation. The recitation serves a double purpose by supporting the mimetic action and giving significant facts about the developing plot 

• Plot: Folk dramas are not built up of well-knit scenes. Their plot construction differs significantly from what it is generally understood. Instead of scenes and acts, it creates self-complete phases of dramatic action, as in the Leela type. There is a kind of looseness in the whole scheme of dramatisation. This loose anatomy of the folk drama offers an excellent opportunity for improvisation, for the use of mimetic arts, for the festivity and spectacle, for a slow and elaborate movement of the story giving peculiar rhythm to the dramatic action

• Characters: Characters of the Danda Naata are not imprisoned on the ‘picture frame. They are not the epic stereotyped Gods and Goddesses, with whom the illiterate village folk cannot connect; instead, they are the localised version of the Gods and Goddess whose lives are deeply embedded in the Odia village culture. For example, the localised Shiva and Parvati (who quarrel like ordinary village couples), the unsophisticated Thentel and Radha (who maintain a village type nanand-bhabhi relationship) etc. Through this localisation, the socio-economic-cultural realities of contemporary life are presented to the audience, with which they intimately are connected

• Stage and Settings: Given the narrative characters of these performances, folk dramaturgy has evolved a technique of simultaneous stage setting, the entries and exist even the simultaneous scene shifting and makeup are done in full view of the audience. Sometimes the stage is set amid the audience, who never regard it as a place somewhere else, where only the dramatis personae can meet, as we regard the proscenium stage. The lack of any scenic apparatus changes the entire character of the folk theatre, both in relation to the actor and its relation to the audience. The simhasan, chauki, manch, dhol, nisaan, mahuri etc., form part of the grand pageantry of Danda naat. The thirteen Bhagata, along with the main Bhagata, who are also the actors, move from villages to villages on their route of the procession. They are separated in time and divided into several ‘drama days.’ This technique of simultaneous stage setting is very suitable for the epic dimension of this Danda Naata and has obvious theatric advantages. It makes possible a splendid and highly diversified spectacle. It allows the scene from one locale to another, from Kailasa to Gopapura, from Swarga to Martya. The final thought about this Danda Naata is that the multiple settings, the selection and arrangement of episodes, movement and grouping of actors are pictorially effective in all their aspects

• Similarly, the openness and barrenness of the stage is a positive virtue. It affords directness in imitation of action, simplicity of make-belief, and immediacy of emotional contact and response

• Costumes: The costumes and makeup of the actors playing the role of Gods and Goddesses are also impeccable. There is no provision for women to perform in this Danda Naata since the rituals and the ceremonies are performed only by the male Bhagata. Therefore the role of the female characters is also enacted by the good looking young men. The male characters always use white colour make, and the female characters use excessive jewellery and sarees. A handkerchief is always tied to their waistband. The character of the demon always uses the mask. Thus the costumes of the characters are also selected as per with medieval period Sanskrit Drama

• Dramatic Dance: Theatrically most compelling is this mixture of dance and drama in which the performer gesticulate a short mythological episode while the chorus sings the text elucidating the mimetic action. The dance depicting the battle between the good and the evil with its pictorial composition and slow mimetic movements gradually building up to a climax seem to be enactments in the spirit of the ancient Hindu drama. However, sometimes a single performer putting on a mask or an elaborate, complicated makeup develop surprising theatrical intensity in his pantomimic presentation on a narrative piece. In Danda Naata, the Prabha Dance of Goddess Kalika is one such example of dramatic dance. This actor playing Kalika drapes a black coloured ‘Ghagra’ (skirt), uttariya on his body, and ghungroos on his ankle. Another long uttariya is tied at the back. Kalika holds this uttariya in her two hands and dances her famous ‘udanda’ dance

• Songs: The dialogues in Danda Naata are presented in the verse form taken from various sources, both oral and written. However, along with these poetic verses taken from the mythological and Puranic sources, Danda Naata has integrated various folk songs like the Baidhana song or the song of the Vanibotala or Thentel to suit the taste of the local audience

• Rasa: Rasa is considered the essential ingredient in Indian classical dramatic tradition. If all the nine rasas are evoked in the audience by perfectly expressing the Bhavas by the characters, then the dramatic performances are considered subliminal. Following the dramatic convention of the classical theatre, the audience of the Danda Naata also gets the taste of all kinds of Rasa. Because of its mythological origin, the plot may not have the scope for Hasya Rasa, but this Rasa is offered through the peculiarity of characters like Duti, Dwari, Narada, Thentel, Chandra Sena. Similarly, Sringara Rasa is presented mainly through the mimetic action of Radha and Krishna

All these general devices and conventions of Danda Naata have evolved a specific folk theatre idea. This theatre idea is the fundamental and significant thing in any discussion and study of folk drama. This theatre idea does not have a static character. It grows and changes with the changing social perspective and cultural content, giving birth to new practices and conventions, enlarging and readjusting the old ones and creating varying versions and styles of one dramatic form. This theatre idea and the convention of the dramatic tradition of Danda Naata are only different from those of the drama of the literate people, and it is wrong to think that they are in any way inferior or less artistic. Their theatre-lessness does not in any way mean that this form of folk drama is without stage conventions. It only means that the conventions of the folk drama, without any physical theatre or with just an informal platform stage, are only different from the modern formal closed theatres. It, however, has several codified dramatic conventions which have evolved out of the actual circumstances of the presentation and with the active participation and the consent of the audience.

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