The role of Da’wah organizations have contributed tremendously in the growth and development of Islamic education by establishing many Qur’anic and Islamiyyah schools and also aided their smooth running throughout Nigeria [1]. Their approach to da'wah in contents, methods and mode of communication facilitated the flourish of books and other visual and audio-visual materials in all branches of Islamic sciences among the Muslims [2]. As a result of the Da'wah activities of these organizations, Nigeria now has a significant network of thousands of Mosques whose exact estimate is difficult but what is certain is that where ever Muslims exists there are mosques either built by da’wah organizations or the generality of Muslims throughout Nigeria. The mosques are distributed according to the Muslim populations in the various locations headed by many Imams who conducted preaching and teachings activities, in addition to Friday sermons in Jumu’ah Mosques.

Also, these organizations have carried out Da'wah during Hajj season meant to teach the pilgrims the meaning and correct performance of the Hajj rituals and to advise them on proper conduct of a pilgrim and to give other practical guidance. This is done in collaboration with states pilgrims welfare Agencies and local governments of various states. These helped tremendously in dissemination of Islamic knowledge, moral discipline and general religious consciousness in the entire life of the Muslims [3].        

This research was carried out using qualitative research methodology. The structured interview was used as instrument for collecting primary sources in addition to published works of or about the selected Da’wah organizations. The qualitative data obtained was subjected to critical content analysis to ensure objectivity and unbiased findings.

The Impact of Da'wah of Religious Organizations in Northern Nigeria

In Northern Nigeria there are many religious organizations that are active in Da'wah work. These organizations have helped in the mobilization of Muslims through organizing Islamic awareness seminars and preaching tours, and have boost Islamic education by introducing schools intended to look after the educational needs of the Muslims’ children and other adult literacy needs. They have also built Mosques and Islamic centres for the overall religious needs of the society. They include the followings:

 Jama'atu Nasril Islam (JNI)

Jama’atu Nasril Islam (JNI) is the umbrella under which all other Islamic organizations in Nigeria rally around. Formed basically to perform preaching through peaceful means, including wisdom and good preaching [4]. It was founded on the 5th of January, 1961 in Kaduna by prominent government officials, politicians, emirs and chiefs, and renowned Islamic scholars of the defunct Northern Region which included late Sir Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto, late Sheikh Abubakar Mahmud Gumi, late Alhaji Ribadu of Yola, late Sheikh Nasiru Kabara, late Sultan of Sokoto Sir Abubakar III and others. The idea of forming the organization which will carry out Da'wah to educate the Muslims in Northern Nigeria was echoed by the late Sardauna of Sokoto, Sir Ahmadu Bello in his discussions with Shaykh Abubakar Gummi at Mina, Saudi Arabia, during the 1962 Hajj exercise where many ignorant Muslims were noticed performing the rites of Hajj not in a proper way, especially during throwing jamarat (three pillars at Mina). They used to throw huge pieces of stones, shoes and whatever they could find around in the name of stoning the devil. Some of them even mounted a small mound at the jamarat, hitting it with sticks and shouting abusive words thinking that they were fighting the real shayṭan. When Sardauna saw this he asked "what are we to do, Mallam Abubakar? He replied that "Nothing other than to educate them and teach them the right thing." The Sardauna accepted this idea and promised to consider what he could do on returning home [5]. 

The Sardauna upon return sent five teachers to educate people and teach the new converts to Islam from Gwoza town in Sardauna province. Later Shaykh Gumi observed that the task of teaching is enormous and more hands are required to teach and preach to people and therefore he advised Sardauna on the need for a formal organization to handle the matter. A meeting was called in the house of late Abubakar Imam to sought out opinions of some Muslim elites living in Kaduna. The premier, Ahmadu Bello Sardauna, Ali Akilu, Ahmed Talib, Ahmad Joda, Armiya'u Katsina and many others attended the meeting including Abubakar Gumi and Abubakar Imam. They discussed at length on the need to educate the new converts and those who wanted to learn about Islam and finally agreed to set up an association which could carry out Da'wah and educate the people. The association was named Jama'at Nasril Islam (NJI) and Abubakar Imam was elected as the Secretary General on consensus [6].

After a number of meetings, a caretaker committee is set up, and asked to draw up rules and regulations for the society. Early in 1963, Abubakar Gummi announced publicly that the primary function of JNI was to educate the Muslims, provide active support for conversion of non-Muslims to Islam and encourage publication and translation of Islamic literature in Nigerian vernacular languages especially the Sokoto Jihad literature, build mosques and encourage Islamic centers of learning. Membership of the organization is open to all Muslims irrespective of their sectarian, tribal or sectional differences. All Muslims in Nigeria could become members if they have interest. The Sulṭan Bello mosque in Kaduna is the center for the JNI and the building near the mosque is used as offices [7]. The JNI, with the financial aid from the Ministry of Education and the Government of Saudi Arabia built its own primary school at Unguwar Sarkin Musulmi Kaduna, and a headquarters. A Secondary School, Sheikh Sabba College, later renamed Sardauna Memorial College Kaduna was built with the donation to JNI from the Kuwaiti Government [8].

Also, in 1963 an advisory committee of 46 scholars from different parts of Nigeria was set up to look into the Muslims social, economic and religious affairs headed by Waziri Junaidu of Sokoto. The Sardauna calls for unity of all the Muslims irrespective of their brotherhood affiliation. Later the society was chaired by the Sultan of Sokoto and the Sardauna served as the patron [9]. The advisory committee members usually sat and resolve issues of differences among the Muslims.

JNI has the following components:

• National Headquarters 

• Branches 

• Sub branches

The National Headquarters is comprised of the offices of the Grand Patron, the Chairman, the Secretary General Treasurer and Auditor General. The state branches have their executive officials who run the affairs of the organization while the sub-branches are constituted at LGA level. The set of activities carried out by the organisation include propagation of Islam in general, converting non-Muslims to Islam, reviving and maintaining Islamic morals among Muslims of all ages and sexes through Da'wah, encouraging intellectual religious activities among the Muslims and promoting friendly relationship among Nigerian Muslims in particular, and world Muslims in general. It also partakes in establishing schools and mosques where Muslims can learn Islamic religion and its cultural values, and other subjects of general education. They also promote unity and cooperation among Muslims by bringing together and coordinating all the Islamic organizations within Nigeria under one common umbrella through their general meetings. The preachers under Jama’atu used to travel from town to town and from one village to another to conduct open-air preaching and to hold dialogue with non-Muslims [10]. 

Jama'atu Izalatil Bid'ah wa Iqamatus Sunnah (Izala or JIBWIS)

The first Islamic scholar whose Da'wah encouraged the formation and acceptance of Jama'atu Izalatil Bid'ah wa Iqamatus Sunnah (Izala or JIBWIS) to the Nigerian Muslims was Sheikh Abubakar Gumi [11]. He was a prominent scholar who engaged in preaching and teaching Islamic religion at the Sultan Bello central mosque Kaduna. Later his preaching was broadcasted in the Northern Nigeria radio station, N.B.C. in his public preaching he used to point out that many of the traditional rulers were not learned in the religion as a result of which they could not offer guidance to the people:

• Worse still, they had brought back to life all the corrupt practices against which Shaykh Dan Fodio went to war with the Hausa rulers. They had become kings with big palaces full of servants and courtiers and require other people to bow down before them. They kept concubines and did not really fear God’s anger [12]

He later wrote a book "al 'Aqidah al sahihah bi muwafaqati al shari'ah" (The right belief based on the Shari'ah) in its contents of which he refuted the claim of the Sufis to have a special place above other Muslims as a result of their access to hidden and extraordinary knowledge gained through direct experience. He also attacked the claim by the Sufis of communicating with the Holy Prophet and receives special message or prayers from him, the content of which differ from what is normally known to the generality of Muslims [13]. He reiterates that a Waliy never receives any message from God nor is he sent to any community. He condemned Salatil Fatih and considers its origin as fake and blasphemous. He also rejected the weight it carries when recited [14]. He accused the followers of attributing many things to both Shaykh Abdulqadir and Shaykh Tijjani who were innocent of most of what was said about them, including many practices which they were said to have advocated or sanctioned [15].

The above preaching no doubt influenced many Muslims to join Izala movement when it was founded. The organization was launched in Jos in 1978 as a purely reform movement under the leadership of late Shaykh Ismai’la Idris. Like Abubakar Gumi, Shaykh Ismai’la Idris’s preaching also focused direct attack on the Sufi’s 'aqeedah (doctrines) and all sorts of innovations and magical practices that contradicted the Sunnah of the Prophet (S.A.W). He started the reform activities long before he was appointed as an Imam in the Nigeria Army. He continued with public preaching while in the Army service which subsequently led to his resignation. When he resigned, many of his followers proposed the formation of an organization under which he would continue to propagate Islam and its reform activities. Hence, Jama'atu Izlatul Bid'ah Wa Ikamatus Sunnah (Society for Removal of Heresy and Establishing the Sunnah) was launched on the 25th May 1978 at Jos township stadium.

Izala is a formally structured organisation with a written constitution. It has two councils at the top namely executive (comprised of elders and patrons) and ulama councils. The executive organ of Izala was first headed by Alhaji Musa Muhammad Maigandu while the Ulama Council was led by the late Shaykh Ismail Idris. The movement has established its Aid Group (’yan agaji) which works hand in hand with working and organizing committees of the movement. There are other important committees like a working committee which is responsible for organizing da'wah activities. Other important offices of Izala include the Secretaries (General Secretary, Administrative Secretary, Judiciary, Educational, Finance and Publicity), Treasurer and Auditors, both at the state, local, district and ward levels.

The main purposes of forming the movement have been given in section 3 of its constitution and can be summarized as follows:

• To unite all Muslims as stated by God in the Holy Qur'an

• To enlighten the people about the activities of some so-called Muslims who have been distorting the true teachings of Islam

• To alert all Muslims so as to be aware of books written by unscrupulous Malams just to bring confusion in Islam

• To show all Muslims that the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) before his death revealed the message he received from God

• To make it clear to all Muslims that anybody who claims prophecy or that

• Muhammad (SAW) has been visiting him, should be regarded as a lair [16]

From then, the organization started a full fledge preaching sessions at National, State and Local Government levels. In their preaching they quoted the Qur'an and the Hadith extensively to support their ideas. 

The contributions of this organization to da'wah activities in Northern Nigeria are paramount. The organization conducted its preaching under the council of preaching with the help of the executives, elders and patrons of the movement. Teaching and preaching have been recognized as the major programs of the society. Its preaching activities are conducted from ward, local, state and national open-air preaching throughout the Northern states of Nigeria and beyond. It also engages in establishing Mosques, schools and offers sermons during Friday congregation and Eid days throughout its mosques where its sermon is translated to Hausa, this attracted many Muslims who don’t understand Arabic to patronize the Izalah activities. In addition to the above the organization also conduct preaching at walimah (wedding) gatherings and Sallah festivals and at any given time as requested by people of any locality throughout Northern Nigeria. It also conducts Ramadan tafsir in many of its mosques throughout Northern Nigeria. There is also a study circle between Salat al-Maghrib and Isha’ and after Salat al-Subh, where Hadith, Qur’an and Fiqh (jurisprudence) are studied in most of its mosques throughout Northern Nigeria. According to Ramzi Amara, Izalah today is one of the largest society not only in Northern Nigeria but also in the south and in some neighbouring countries like Chad, Cameroon and Niger republics. Its impact could be seen in the propagation of Islam, building many institutions and mosques all over the country [17].

Muslims Students’ Society of Nigeria (MSSN) 

This organization was founded on the 18^th April, 1954 on the idea of safeguarding the fundamentals, culture and identity of the Muslims of Nigeria against the Christian Missionary activities of forceful evangelisation on the Muslim students studying under the mission schools. This is as a result of cases where some Muslim students are changing their religion to Christianity due to the influence of Christian missionary trend. To address this un-Islamic trend some concerned Muslim students in Lagos whom include Tajudeen Adisa Aromoshudu, Sumola Akin Luguda and Abdurrahman Alade Sahid founded the organization. After a year of its founding, the organization spread to many schools in Yoruba land. With the support of notable people like Sardauna of Sokoto Ahmadu Bello, Alhaji A. R. H. Smith of Ilesha, Dr. S. O. Biobaku and Alhaji Inuwa Wada the organization spread to almost all public schools in the Northern Nigeria Province within two years of its founding.

The aims and objectives of the organization as stated in its constitution are:

• To bring all Muslims in closer union and inculcate in them the true Islamic spirit of brotherhood and absolute faith in Allah as the only basis for the achievement of peace among mankind

• Establishing an Islamic Ummah governed by the principles and rules of the Shari'ah

• To encourage the study of the Glorious Qur'an as a book of Allah and Arabic language as the lingua franca of the Islamic world and ensure proper understanding of Islam among its members

•  To constitute a strong force for the propagation and strengthening Islam in Nigeria and throughout the world [18]

To achieve the above objectives MSSN set as its mission, working relentlessly towards the establishment of a society that posters all-round human development under the banner of Islam[19]. MSSN has encouraged the practice of Islamic morals among the Muslim students of Nigeria. There is an increased observance of devotional practices and moral attitudes unlike before where good moral character has been neglected in our educational institutions especially in the mission Schools. Since its introduction, the MSS have been carrying out Da'wah calling on the government to see that evils permeating through the western educational system are removed by making Islamic studies compulsory by all Muslim students. They have been carrying out lectures, symposium and seminars, exposing western culture which have been arranged in such a manner as to propagate the idea of a universe without God, that the entire organization of the universe is the result of a natural phenomenon and is running on its own accord, neither God has created it nor any Supernatural Power is working behind it. Likewise, another conception that they expose is the idea that Man is his own guide; he neither stands in need of any Divine guidance nor does he receive such guidance as propagated by secularists. They also advised and call on the Muslim leaders to endeavor to effect a change by formulating a system of education in accordance with our faith. The Muslim students’ Society (M.S.S) was also calling from time to time for an Islamic system of government [20]. The Similarity of ideas, mission and activities of MSSN in Nigeria, and that of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt is enough to trace the influence of the later in the former. This is because of conducting awareness campaign in form of lectures, symposia, publishing magazines, pamphlets and other avenues, towards liberating the Muslims from dependence on the exploitative programs of the West. They engaged in the Islamization of knowledge on religious awareness, revealing the un-Islamic trend of domination of western cultures to Muslims, and the need for a return to Islamic cultures as the only solution to the societal myriads we are witnessing [21]. 

This Organization no wonder has provided a forum for all Muslim students and youth to come together through its annual conferences and vocation courses irrespective of the order, sect or organization one belonged to. MSSN had also held lectures from time to time in order to enlighten the Muslims populace especially the students and the youth to wake up their expected tasks and responsibilities of bringing an Islamic order. Most of the themes of Muslims students’ society's lectures and congregation were mainly centered on the establishment of the Muslim Ummah under the umbrella of Shari'ah [22].

Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria (FOMWAN)

The idea to form Federation of Muslim women Association of Nigeria (FOMWAN) started in 1980, when some educated Muslim women started thinking about establishing a national Islamic organization for women. This was because as at then there were educated Muslim women scattered in various parts of the country who wanted to increase their knowledge and practice of Islam. 

Some (women) had already formed Islamic study groups. Some had organized classes for uneducated women, and some had established nursery and primary schools. Others were interested and wanted to serve Islam but were not in touch with others of like mind.
 

Most of the organized groups operated entirely in isolation, not knowing of each other’s existence. Therefore, there was no mutual encouragement and no exchange of ideas, programs or information. There was therefore need for a central focus to link all these groups together and to help establish new groups in areas where there was none before [23].

Another reason was the need for a body, which the women could express their views and feelings on matters of religious and National interests because some of the societies that existed are only aiming at social progress for women and are were dominated by non-Muslims who were only interested in conventional approach in dealing with issues of women. Such societies were speaking for all Nigerian women and their approach in dealing with issues were often contrary to the teachings of the Qur'an and Sunnah, and therefore not acceptable to Muslims. It was therefore felt necessary to form an independent platform from which Muslim women could express their world view in accordance with the teachings of Islam. Also, there were many problems confronting Muslim women such as female education and the fulfillment of women’s rights as guaranteed under the Shari’ah. These could only be effectively tackled through Islamic solutions. With all these developments in mind, the women concerned met in April 1985 in Kano at a conference to establish the organization, which was done in October 1985 in Minna. The organization is registered with the Corporate Affairs Commission of Nigeria as a non-governmental organization and coalition/network of Muslim Women Organizations in Nigeria. It has a national secretariat that houses its operations while affiliates/branches exist at the state level and they enjoy some measure of autonomy [24].

Aim and objectives of FOMWAN

FOMWAN’s main aim is educating the Muslim woman and also promoting the understanding and practice of the teachings of the Qur'an and Sunnah. Others are:

• Education of Muslim women at all levels

• Provision of health services especially in reproductive health

• Intellectual and economic empowerment of women through capacity building workshops, seminars, etc

• Care of early school leavers (Drop-outs or school age children not enrolled)

• Rehabilitation of school children, abandoned children, orphans and refugee children

• Provision of girl-child education and adult literacy for women both in English and Arabic through establishment of schools, both formal and informal

• Youth programs for youth development, for instance, youth camps for girls
  Encouraging Muslim women to establish groups throughout the country for educational and da’wah purposes

• Establishing a framework for national cooperation and unity among women Islamic Associations [25]

The above aims and objectives are achieved through the mission of the organization in propagating the religion of Islam in Nigeria through da’wah, establishment of educational institutions and other outreach activities. And improving the socio-economic status of the populace especially women, youth and children through training, provision of qualitative education, health and humanitarian services, micro enterprise scheme and advocacy [26]. The organization had continued to encourage continuing education for married women, and established schools for women and children’s education as well as carried out lectures, conferences and da’wah activities to spread Islamic education. The above activities have been carried out by the organization since its establishment; however, it is the yearnings of many Muslims that if the aim and objectives of FOMWAN will be achieved, no doubt it will be appreciated in promoting the general wellbeing of the Muslims in Nigeria [27]. 

Findings

With the increase in the Islamic Da’wah organizations in Nigeria, the number of Islamiyyah schools increased with the aim of promoting Islamic education and eradicating illiteracy. Mosques were also increased where Islamic awareness and Da’wah activities were carried out. For example, Islamic dress code was patronized by many Muslim sisters and congregational prayers are regularly observed by many youths thereby creating an Islamic atmosphere around the Muslim’s environment. This notwithstanding, the problem of disunity among the Muslims in Nigeria is still an unaddressed issue despite the efforts of many Da’wah organizations to unite the Muslims under the banner of Islam. Sectarianism, political differences and ethnicity as well as materialism all have a role in Muslims’ disunity. 

Another problem is the challenges arising from the evangelical programmes of Nigerian Christian Associations who are busy destroying some of the efforts of these Da’wah organizations through going deep into rural areas and converting some ignorant Muslims to Christianity. 

Recommendations

The curriculum of our conventional schools should emphasize on teaching Arabic and Islamic studies in addition to formal conventional subjects to all the Muslim students. These are missing in most of Nigeria’s public schools [28]. Some organizations in Nigeria have continued and are still establishing Islamic schools for the memorization of the Qur'an and general Islamic education where children were exposed to Islamic learning environment. Other schools have also been established by wealthy individuals as Sadaqatun Jariyah for the promotion of Islamic education all these as a result of Islamic Da’wah. These notwithstanding, the following recommendations are also essential for a peaceful coexistence among the Muslims and non-Muslims in Nigeria.

• Though the scholars and religious organizations are presently active in Da'wah work, still much effort is expected from them to address religious ignorance which the terrorists’ organizations and enemies of Islam are using as a tool for recruiting their subjects

• Governments of Nigeria should also establish preaching boards to monitor the preaching of deviant sects to address their misinterpretations and misrepresentation of Islam among the masses

• Majority of the Muslims of Northern Nigeria lives in the rural areas where ignorance is high and Islamic scholars are very few. Therefore, the Ulama, Da’wah organizations and wealthy Muslims should employ Da'wah workers and post them to various villages to carryout teachings and preaching activities to reduce the ignorance of religious teachings among the masses

Collective effort and struggle by the Muslims of Nigeria needs to be done to bring about purposeful changes that will ensure proper application and implementation of Shari'ah. Muslims in Nigeria should gather courage to extricate itself from the tangle of Western materialism, secularism and political blunders and re-establish Islamic way of life in their mundane and public affairs.

Finally, the paper concludes by calling the Nigerian government to amend the section of the constitution that declares the country as a secular one. This clause made religion as personal conviction and as such, everybody has the right to do whatever he likes on religious issues without control, and this creates a lot of problems among the people. The country should be recognized as 'Multi Religious' not secular. With this in the constitution, regulatory bodies on religious affairs should be established so as to monitor the religious activities in the country. This will definitely minimize the proliferation of terrorists’ groups like Boko Haram and other religious bigotry, intolerance, disputes, intra and inter religious crises. The state governments in Nigeria should also make laws in order to punish any person who is propagating deviant ideology and hatred speeches which is culpable of bringing religious crisis in accordance with his religious laws.

1. Interview with Ibrahim Kabir, age 45 years. Conducted at Central Mosque, Abuja, Nigeria, on 19 October 2013.

2. Interview with Tukur Abdullahi, age 50 years. Conducted at Okehi, Kogi, on 30 February 2012.

3. Interview with Muhammad Muhammad Shaku, age 53 years. Conducted at Lavun LGA, Niger State, on 12 December 2013.

4. “Jama’atu Nasril Islam.” The Free Encyclopedia in Over 300 Languages, en.m.wikipedia.org. Visited on Friday, 6 November 2020, at 12:30.

5. Gummi, S.A., and Tsiga, I.A. Where I Stand. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd., pp. 104–105.

6. Gummi, S.A., and Tsiga, I.A. Where I Stand, p. 106.

7. Paden, J.N. Ahmadu Bello: Sardauna of Sokoto, Values and Leadership in Nigeria. Zaria: Hudahuda Publishing Co., p. 549.

8. Gummi, S.A., and Tsiga, I.A. Where I Stand, p. 107.

9. Paden, J.N. Ahmadu Bello: Sardauna of Sokoto, Values and Leadership in Nigeria, p. 450.

10. Paden, J.N. Ahmadu Bello: Sardauna of Sokoto, Values and Leadership in Nigeria.

11. Al-Abusu, U. Shaykh Abubakar Mahmoud Gumi wa Dauruhu fi Islahi wa al-Tajdid fi Nigeriya. www.odabasham.net. Visited on Friday, 6 November 2020, at 12:10.

12. Gummi, S.A., and Tsiga, I.A. Where I Stand, p. 108.

13. Gummi, S.A., and Tsiga, I.A. Where I Stand, p. 142.

14. Harazimi, S.A. Op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 135.

15. Gummi, S.A., and Tsiga, I.A. Where I Stand, p. 147.

16. Interview with Alhaji Idris Malwa, Secretary of JIBWIS, Plateau State. Conducted on 17 August 2009. As cited in Muhammad Sani Adam Modibbo. Survey of Muslim Groups in Plateau State of Nigeria. Nigeria Research Network (NRN) Background Paper No. 4. Oxford Department of International Development, University of Oxford, 2012, p. 12.

17. Ramzi, B.A. “Shari’ah Debate in Africa.” As quoted in en.m.wikipedia.org. Visited on Friday, 6 November 2020, at 12:46.

18. Constitution of Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria (MSSN). Rets Communications, 1432 A.H. / 2011, pp. 5–6.

19. Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria (MSSN) @ a Glance. National Headquarters Abuja: Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria, 2010, p. 9.

20. Interview with Surajo Yusuf Arewa, age 30 years. Conducted at Argungu, on 5 December 2013.

21. Interview with Tukur Abdullahi, age 50 years. Conducted at Amina Islamic Foundation, Karaworo Street, Lokoja, on 11 April 2012.

22. Interview with Mubarak Saidu, age 32 years. Conducted at MSSN Kaduna Polytechnic Branch, Kaduna South, on 13 September 2011.

23. Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria. http://www.fomwan.org/about_fomwan.php. 2010. Retrieved on 21 September 2013.

24. Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria, op. cit.

25. Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria, op. cit.

26. Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria, op. cit.

27. Interview with Ummil-Khairi Ibrahim, age 35 years. Conducted at Akhwati Muslimah Sisters Organization for Da’wah and Charity Work, Head Office, Central Area, Abuja, on 30 December 2012.

28. Muhammad, S.U. “Profiles of New Islamic Schools in Northern Nigeria.” A paper presented at a workshop on Innovations and Their Contextualization in African Islamic Societies, University of Bayreuth, Germany, 9–10 February 2001, p. 15.